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Page  196) 


THE   GEOGRAPHY 


OT7 


COMMERCE  and  INDUSTRY 


BY 

W.  F.  ROCHELEAU 

Author  of  " Great  American  Industries" 

Formerly  State  Institute  Conductor  for  Minnesota,  later  Department  of  Psychology  and 

Pedagogy,  and  Superintendent  of  Training  School,  Southern 

Illinois  State  Normal  University 


'       1   V  C  Ly  T 

I  5  o  \)  <) 


...       .  .REVISED  EDITION  . 


EDUCATIONAL  PUBLISHING  CO. 

Boston        New  York         Chicago         San  Francisc^ 


Copyright,  1905 
By  W.  F.  ROCHELEAU 


Copyright,  1908 
By  W.  F.  ROCHELEAU 


PREFACE 

Of  the  multitude  of  pupils  in  our  public  schools,  only  a  few  reach  the 
eighth  grade,  and  even  a  smaller  number  enter  the  high  school,  yel  those 
who  terminate  tiieir  school  career  thus  early  become  bread  winners  and 
home  makers,  and  constitute  a  Large  proportion  of  our  citizens.  Many  of 
these  young  people  leave  school  almost  totally  ignorant  of  sources  of 
supply,  processes  of  manufacture,  and  cost  of  our  most  common  commodi- 
ties. That  a  knowledge  of  the  world's  greal  industries  would  give  them 
additional  power  in  solving  the  problems  of  life,  and  also  make  them  more 
useful  citizens,  is  the  belief  of  the  author  of  this  work. 

The  Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry  has  been  prepared  to  meet 
the  needs  of  eighth  grade  pupils  and  those  who  enter  high  Bchool.  It 
recognizes  the  dearth  of  reference  works  on  many  <>f  the  subjects  treated, 
and  lias  given  the  leading  industries  such  treatment  as  to  make  each  chap- 
ter a  unit. 

The  dependence  of  industries  upon  geographical  conditions,  the  rela- 
tion of  man  to  his  environment,  and  the  effect  of  commerce  upon  civiliza- 
tion are  clearly  shown.  The  industrial  life  of  our  own  country  is  fully 
treated,  and  then  the  relation  of  the  United  States  to  other  countries,  and 
of  these  to  each  other,  are  shown. 

The  illustrations  are  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  adding  information  and 
interest,  and  each  map  is  made  for  the  express  purpose  of  emphasizing 
the  feature  that  it  represents.  The  relief  maps  were  modelled  by  .Mr. 
Georg  Thorn  e-Thonisen  of  the  School  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago, 
especially  for  this  work. 

Many  of  the  questions  are  designed  to  awaken  thought  and  lead  to 
further  study,  ami  cannot  be  answered  directly.  By  assigning  them  to 
different  pupils,  so  that  each  will  have  one  or  more  to  investigate  and  report 
upon,  they  can  he  made  to  add  much  to  the  interest  of  the  work. 

The  less  important  countries  are  so  grouped  in  chapters  that  if  desired, 
their  study  can  be  omitted  without  breaking  the  continuity  of  thought. 

lam  under  special  obligations  to  Mr.  Frank  W.  Darling,  formerly 
head  of  the  Department  of  Geography,  Chicago  Normal  School,  for 
critically  reading  the  manuscript  and  making  many  valuable  suggestions. 

W.   F.    B. 

iii 


CONTENTS. 


PART   ONE. 
CONDITIONS    RELATING    TO    INDUSTRIES. 


Chapter  I 
Climate 


Chapter  II 

Soil  and  Plants 


Chapter  III 
1  Why  Man  Engages  in  Trade 

Chapter  IV 
11  Transportation        .        . 


17 


PART   TWO. 
THE   UNITED    STATES. 


Chapter  I 

Position,  Surface,  and  Climate       33 

Chapter  II 

Wheal. 47 

Chapter  III 

Corn 61 

Chapter  IV 

Live  Stock      .        .        .        .71 

Chapter  V 

Cotton 81 

Chapter  VI 

Fisheries  .  .         .89 

Chapter  VII 

Forest  Products      ...       97 

Chapter  VIII 

Mineral  Industries  .         .     109 

Chapter  IX 

Metals     .....     113 


Chapter  X 

Mineral  Fuels  .         .         .     127 

Chapter  XI 

Rock  and  Soil  Products  .         .     139 

Chapter  XII 

Manufacturing  Industries       .     145 

Chapter  XIII 

Textile  Fabrics        .         .         .151 

Chapter  XIV 

Leather  Products    .        .        .     159 

Chapter  XV 

Printing  and  Publishing  .     165 

Chapter  XVI 

Other  Industries     .        .        .     171 

Chapter  XVII    - 

Trade  Routes  .        .        .179 


Chapter  XVIII 
Great  Cities 


199 


iv 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  XIX 

New  York  and  Chicago   . 

Chapter  XX 
Exchange 

Chapter  XXI 

Trade  between  the  States 


Chapter  XX ll 

Alaska  and  our  [aland  Posses- 
sions    ..... 
Chapter  XX  ill 

Onr  Trade  with  Other  Nations 
Chapter  XXIV 
24i  Commercial    Growth    of    the 

United  States 


21 


23 1 


247 
257 

267 


PART 
COMMERCE    OF    F 


THREE. 

OREIGN    NATIONS. 


Chapter  I 

Chapter  X 

Canada     

27:: 

Spain  and  Portugal,  and 

Italy 

347 

Chapter  II 

Chapter  XI 

\k 

Mexico  and  Central  America  . 

283 

The  Balkan  Countries 

353 

< 

Chapter  III 

Chapter  XII 

South  America 

287 

The  Russian  Empire 

357 

Chapter  IV 

(II  \iTER    XIII 

The  West  Indies      . 

307 

India,  Ceylon  and  the  Straits 

Chapter   V 

Settlements 

303 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

311 

Chapter  XIV 

0 

Chapter  VI 

The  Chinese  Empire 

369 

Y 

Germany            .... 

321 

Chapter  XV 

Chapter  VII 

Japan 

875 

i 

France      

329 

i'ii  u'l  Ki:    XV  1 

Chapter  VIII 

other  Asiatic  Countries 

381 

Belgium,    Netherlands,     Den- 

Chapter XVI I 

mark,  Norway  and   Sweden 

335 

Australia 

383 

Chapter  IX  Chapter  XVI II 

Austria  Hungary  and  Switzer-  Africa 

land 343 


387 


MAPS. 

Annual  Rainfall  of  the  World        .......  6 

Relief  Map,  United  States 32 

Annual  Rainfall  in  the  United  States     ......  44 

Wheat ' 48 

Corn 62 

Cotton 80 

Lumber        .          ..........  96 

Coal  and  Iron 126 

Railroads     .          .                   .                   .          .          .          ...  178 

Canals 188 

Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal            . 192 

Ocean  Routes             .........  195 

Relief  .Map,  South  America    .......  288 

Panama  and  the  Panama  Canal           .         .         .          .          .          .  291 

Trans-Siberian  Railway          .......  360 

Relief  Map,  Eurasia            .          .         .         .         •         .         .         .  362 

Suez  Canal              .........  387 

Cape-to-Cairo  Railway       ....*...  394 

vi 


PART  T. 
CONDITIONS  THAT    DETERMINE    INDUSTRIES. 


Chapter  I. 

CLIMATE. 

You   have   long  since   learned  thai  the  sur- 
LAND  AND  WATER     ,.  e  .,         '        .  .     , .  ,      . 

taee  ot  the  earth  is  composed  01  land  and 

water  and  that  there  is  practically  three  times  as  much  water  as 
land.  Probably  you  have  also  learned  that  the  land  and  water  are 
very  unequally  distributed,  the  greater  pari  of  the  land  lying  north 
of  the  Equator  and  the  greater  part  of  the  water  lying  south  of  it  : 
but  you  may  not  have  considered  the  relations  which  these  condi- 
tions sustain  to  human  life,  occupations  and  commerce. 

„„„„„,,    .*,„-....      ()!'  the  fourteen  hundred  million  people  liv- 
UNEQUAL  DISTRI-     .  !      ' 

ing  upon  the  earth  about  one-halt   live  upon 

BUTION  OF  LIFE       ,         '  fl       ..  .  -  ' 

less  than  one-seventh  ot   its  surtace.      I  lie 

principal  causes  for  this  unequal  distribution  of  life  are  climate  and 

the   condition   of   the  earth's    surface.      Animals  are   compelled   to 

live    in  the   regions  that  produce   their  food.      Man   only   can  live 

away   from   the   sources   of  his   food   supply,  because   he   alone  has 

devised  means  for  transporting  what   he   needs  to  any   locality   in 

which  he  desires   to   dwell.      Some   animals   \'vrd   upon    plant-,  and 

some  upon    other  animals.     Those   animals  that    furnish   food   for 

others,  themselves  feed  upon  plants;  therefore  the  animal  life  of  a 

locality  is  determined  by   its  plant    life,  and  even   man   finds  it  to 

his  advantage   to   dwell    in   those   portions   of  the   earth    where   his 

supply  of  food  is  abundant  and  easily  obtained. 

1 


2  COMMERCE  AND   INDUSTRY 

The  most  important  features  of  climate  are  temper- 
ature and  rainfall.     As  these  are,  so  are  the  vegeta- 
tion, animal   life  and  people.       In  general,  the  earth  is   divided 
climatically  into  the  tropical,  temperate  and  polar  regions. 

The    tropical    regions    are    characterized    by 
Tropical  Reg-ions    high   temperatureSj   and   in   some   localities 

an  abundance  of  rainfall,  and  in  others  almost  an  entire  absence  of 
rainfall.  Where  there  is  an  abundance  of  rainfall  we  find  the  most 
luxuriant  vegetation.  The  regions  best  illustrating  these  condi- 
tions of  life  are  found  in  the  valleys  of  the  Amazon  and  Kongo 
Rivers.  In  the  forests  of  the  Amazon  the  trees  grow  to  an 
enormous  size,  and  twining  and  climbing  plants  and  undergrowth 
form  thickets  so  dense  that  it  is  impossible  to  penetrate  them. 
Here  also  are  myriads  of  insects  of  the  most  gorgeous  hues  and 
birds  of  brilliant  plumage. 

The  inhabitants  of  this  region  need  but  little  clothing,  and  that 
of  the  simplest  sort.  The  only  purpose  of  dwellings  is  to  shelter 
them  from  the  heavy  rains  and  hot  sun.  Food  is  abundant  and 
grows  without  cultivation.  The  climate  is  enervating,  and  there 
is  nothing  to  lead  man  to  exert  himself  beyond  the  little  labor 
necessary  to  supply  his  daily  wants.  Consequently  we  find  the 
inhabitants  indolent  and  in  a  state  bordering  on  savagery.  They 
have  made  no  progress  since  they  were  first  discovered  by  the 
Spaniards  nearly  four  hundred  years  ago. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Kongo  we  find  conditions  somewhat  sim- 
ilar, but  the  elevation  of  the  interior  of  Africa  gives  this  region  a 
lower  average  temperature  than  that  of  the  valley  of  the  Amazon. 
The  people  construct  permanent  dwellings  which  are  grouped  in 
villages,  and  though  surrounded  by  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  many 
of  the  tribes  domesticate  animals  and  till  the  ground  in  a  rude 
fashion.  They  are  further  advanced  towards  civilization  than 
the  tribes  of  the  Amazon,  but  are  still  indolent  and  unprogressive. 


COMMERCE  AND  INDUSTRY  3 

In  sharp  contrast  with  the  climate  and   lift-  <>!' 

Polar  Regions     fl      +  ,,  <•    ,,  , 

°  1 1 ie    tropics    are    those    ot    the    polar    regions. 

These  regions  are  characterized  by  long,  cold  winter-,  and  short. 
hot  summers.  In  the  colder  portions  there  are  no  forests,  and 
vegetation  consists  almost  entirely  of  a  low  order  of  plants, 
such  as  mosses  and  lichens,  with  which  are  mingled  a  few  flower- 
ing plants  that  mature  during  the  short  summer.  The  soil  thaws 
for  only  twelve  or  fifteen  inches,  aad  below  this  the  roots  come  in 
contact  with  a  bed  of  frost.  These  conditions  are  well  illustrated 
in  the  tundra,  a  long  belt  of  low  and  nearly  level  land  in  northern 
Siberia,  containing  many  lakes  and  rivers.  In  winter  the  land  is 
buried  beneath  a  sheet  of  snow,  but,  with  the  coming  of  late  spring, 
life  wakens  to  great  intensity.  Groves  of  stunted  trees  occasion- 
ally occur  around  small  streams,  and  serve  to  break  the  monotony 
of  the  scenery,  and  on  the  southern  border  shrubs  greatly  increase 
in  size  until  they  reach  the  line  of  forests.  In  the  most  favorable 
localities  the  cranberry,  crow  berry  and  whortleberry  grow  abun- 
dantly. The  lower  areas  are  covered  with  bog  moss,  and  the 
higher  lands  with  reindeer  moss,  and  in  summer  are  brilliant  with 
flowers  of  many  hues. 

The  lakes  and  rivers  teem  with  fish,  and  the  reindeer,  polar 
bear  and  Arctic  fox  are  about  the  only  animals  found  on  the  land. 
The  reindeer  is  domesticated,  and  supplies  the  inhabitants  with 
milk  and  meat,  and  from  its  horns  and  hides  tools,  moccasins, 
clothing  and  other  useful  articles  are  made.  It  lives  upon  the 
reindeer  moss  which  it  procures  in  winter  by  digging  in  the  snow 
with  its  forefeet.  It  is  indifferent  to  cold,  i-  a  swifl  traveler,  and 
is  easily  domesticated,  making  it  a  most  valuable  servant  for  the 
people  who  inhabit  these  inhospitable  region-. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  tundra  are  widely  scattered,  and  belong 
to  various  races.  They  erect  temporary  dwellings,  and  during  the 
winter  follow  the  reindeer  from  place  to  place  as  they   wander  in 


4  COMMERCE  AND  INDUSTRY 

search  of  food.  In  those  portions  of  North  America  corresponding 
to  the  Siberian  tundra,  we  rind  a  few  Indian  tribes  who  exist  by 
hunting  and  fishing.  Alaska  and  Greenland  are  inhabited  by  the 
Esquimaux,  and  the  northern  portions  of  Europe  by  the  Lapps 
and  Finns.  In  all  these  localities  the  entire  strength  and  energy 
of  the  people  are  required  to  procure  food,  clothing  and  shelter 
necessary  to  a  bare  existence.  There  is,  therefore,  no  opportunity 
for  advancement  beyond  the  occupation  necessary  for  these  pur- 
poses. The  men  are  skilled  hunters  and  fishermen,  and  display 
their  ingenuity  in  fashioning  such  weapons  and  tools  as  they  need, 
but  they  engage  in  no  occupations  save  those  directly  connected 
with  the  procuring  of  materials  for  food,  clothing  and  shelter. 

In  the  temperate    regions  we   find  condi- 
^  °  tions  of  well  marked  temperature  seasons 

which  are  comparable  with  the  tundra  conditions  for  part  of  the 
year  and  with  tropical  conditions  during  another  part.  During 
spring-time  and  summer  plants  grow  and  mature,  while  during  the 
remainder  of  the  year  vegetation  rests.  This  makes  it  necessary 
for  the  inhabitants  of  the  temperate  regions  to  produce  and  gather 
in  summer  most  of  the  material  which  they  will  need  for  food 
during  the  winter.  Hence  the  people  must  be  industrious  and 
saving,  with  always  a  plan  for  the  future.  In  these  regions  are 
found  the  most  valuable  grains,  fruits  and  other  food  products, 
such  as  wheat,  corn,  the  potato,  the  apple,  peach,  plum  and  many 
small  fruits.  The  temperate  regions  are  also  the  home  of  the 
most  valuable  domestic  animals  such  as  the  horse,  ox,  sheep, 
and  swine. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  temperate  regions  have  at  their  disposal 
a  variety  of  resources.  They  live  in  a  climate  which  stimulates 
them  to  activity,  and  amid  conditions  that  provide  opportunities 
for  a  great  variety  of  occupations.  Consequently  these  regions 
have  been  the  abode  of  the  great  nations  of  civilization  from  the 


COMMERCE  AND   INDUSTRY  5 

remotest  time,  and  it  is  with  the  people  of  these  regions  thai    the 
greater  part  of  this  book  has  to  do. 
lwnniFYTNr       ^u*  t'u'ro  are  regions  within  regions.     Extend- 

„»„. „ ing   into  the    fro/en,  barren   regions    of  the    far 

INFLUENCES  „  '  . 

north  we  tmd  some  regions  having  a  temperate 

climate,  with  its  characteristic  plants  and  animals,  as  in  Alaska 
and  Norway.  Within  the  tropics  we  find  high  mountains,  covered 
with  perpetual  snow.  In  sharp  contrast  with  the  dense  forests  of 
the  Amazon  and  the  Kongo,  arc  vast,  barren  areas  like  the  Sahara, 
lying  but  a  short  distance  away.  Within  the  temperate  regions 
we  find  a  great  variety  of  climatic  conditions  adapting  different 
localities  to  different  forms  of  life,  and  a  variety  of  industries. 
The  most  important  causes  which  produce  these  changes  are 
rainfall,  altitude,  mountains  and  distance  from  the  sea. 

The  amount  of  rainfall  of  any  locality  depend-  upon 
its  distance  from  the  sea,  the  direction  of  prevailing 
winds,  and  its  location  in  reference  to  mountains.  The  air  obtains 
its  supply  of  moisture  from  the  constant  evaporation  from  the 
surface  of  the  land  and  sea  :  hence  the  ocean  i-  the  greal  source  of 
rain.  In  general,  places  situated  near  the  sea  receive  a  greater 
amount  of  rainfall  than  those  far  inland,  unless  the  prevailing 
winds  blow  from  the  land  to  the  sea.  Europe,  whose  area  i- 
small,  and  the  basins  of  the  Amazon  and  Kongo  have  an  abun- 
dance of  rain;  but,  with  these  exceptions,  in  the  interiors  of 
continents  are  found  extensive  arid  regions  and  deserts. 

Winds  carry  water  vapor  a  long  distance.  If  the  prevailing 
winds  blow  from  the  sea  to  the  land,  and  do  not  rise  over  moun- 
tains near  the  coast,  they  carry  the  moisture  far  into  the  interior. 
Whenever  winds  are  forced  to  rise  they  become  cooled  and  cause 
rainfall.  Winds  are  forced  to  rise  under  two  condition-:  <li 
Whenever  winds  blow  over  mountains,  as  along  the  Pacific  coast 
of  the  United  States,  they  cause   heavy   rainfall   over  the  land  on 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  7 

the  windward  side  to  a  distance  of  several  hundred  miles.  (2) 
Whenever  the  land  becomes  heated  the  atmosphere  above  it  will 
become  heated,  expand,  and  rise.  As  it  rises  it  cools,  and  the 
moisture  is  condensed  and  falls.  This  accounts  for  the  heavy 
rainfall  in  those  regions  near  the  equator. 

The  Great  Central  Plain,  extending  from  north  to  south 
between  the  mountain  systems  of  North  America,  enables  the 
warm  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  carry  their  moisture  far 
to  the  northward  and  thus  water  the  fertile  prairies  of  the 
Mississippi  Basin.  But  the  western  portion  of  the  Great  Plain  is 
arid  because  the  winds  from  the  Gulf  rarely  reach  the  higher  land 
to  the  west  with  any  force,  and  the  winds  blowing  over  the 
Rockies  become  descending  currents  on  the  eastern  slope,  and  as 
they  fall  they  gradually  grow  warmer  and  their  capacity  for 
absorbing  moisture  constantly  increases,  thus  diving  the  land. 

AYhenever  there  is  heavy  rainfall  it  is  because  the  winds  are 
blowing  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  getting  cooler.  Deserts  are  places 
where  the  rainfall  is  less  than  ten  inches  a  year,  and  hence  the\ 
are  unproductive.  They  are  caused  in  one  of  three  ways  :  (  1  ) 
By  air  currents  descending  constantly  over  one  region,  as  in 
southern  California  and  Arizona.  (2)  By  a  region  being  so  sur- 
rounded by  mountains  on  every  side  that  the  moist  winds  cannot 
get  to  the  region,  as  the  Great  Basin  about  Great  Salt  Lake  and 
the  plateau  desert  of  Thibet.  (3)  By  winds  which  Mow  from  a 
cool  to  a  warmer  region  and  so  take  up  moisture  as  they  get 
warmer,  as  the  Desert  of  Sahara.  In  general,  winds  blowing  from 
the  sea  towards  the  land,  and  those  blowing  from  a  warmer  to  a 
cooler  region,  are  winds  containing  enough  water  vapor  to  produce 
rain;  while  winds  blowing  from  the  land  to  the  sea  and  from  a 
cool  to  a  warm  climate,  have  their  capacity  for  moisture  constantly 
increased,  and  produce  clear  skies  and  fair  weather. 

Rainfall   affects  the  character  and  amount  of  vegetation,  and 


8  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

1<>  a  considerable  extent  the  industries  of  a  locality.  Agriculture 
cannol  be  successfully  followed  without  irrigation  where  the 
annual  rainfall  is  less  than  twenty  inches,  and  for  the  best  results 
it  should,  be  from  forty  to  fifty  inches,  and  evenly  distributed  over 
the  growing  season.  These  requirements  greatly  restrict  the 
agricultural  regions,  and  large  areas  whose  soil  is  capable  of 
producing  abundant  crops  remain  almost  barren  for  lack  of  water. 
In  comparatively  small  areas,  as  the  Nile  valley,  the  densely 
populated  portions  of  China,  and,  in  the  United  States,  sections 
in  Utah,  Arizona,  and  the  southern  part  of  California,  the  nec- 
essary  moisture  is  supplied  by  irrigation. 

Semi-arid  regions,  like  the  western  portion  of  the  Great 
Central  Plain  in  the  United  States,  Arabia,  portions  of  Mongolia, 
and  the  interior  of  South  Africa,  have  sufficient  rainfall  to  produce 
a  good  crop  of  grass,  and  are  valuable  for  grazing  purposes. 
Regions  having  a  hundred  inches  or  more  of  rain  are  usually 
covered  with  dense  forests,  and  are  sparsely  populated. 

Next  to  latitude,  altitude  is  the  most  important 
Altitude  cause  tnat  affects  climate.  The  average  tempera- 
ture of  a  place  falls  one  degree  for  every  three  hundred  feet  of 
elevation  above  sea  level.  By  ascending  a  hill  three  hundred  feet 
high,  we  should  experience  as  great  a  change  in  temperature  as  in 
traveling  from  thirty  to  sixty  miles  north  or  south  from  the  tropics. 
People  who  ascend  high  mountains  in  tropical  regions  pass 
through  all  the  changes  of  temperature  that  they  would  experience 
in  going  from  the  equatorial  to  the  polar  regions,  but  they  do 
not  encounter  all  the  climatic  changes  found  between  the  torrid 
and  frigid  zones  on  account  of  the  local  conditions  which  affect 
moisture  and  prevailing  winds.  High  plateaus,  even  though 
located  in  the  equatorial  regions,  have  a  cool  climate,  and  the  lofty 
] teaks  and  high  mountain  ranges  of  these  regions,  like  those  of 
the  Andes  and  the  Himalayas,  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  9 

Mountain   ranges   have  great    influence  on 
Mountain  Ranges     cHmate  on  account  0f  both  their  elevation 

and  their  effect  on  winds.  In  the  Americas,  the  mountain^ranges 
extend  north  and  south.  The  Rocky  Mountains  prevent  the  winds 
from  the  Pacific  from  reaching  the  great  plains  in  the  interior  of 


A  VIEW  IN  THE  HIMALAYAS 
Though  they  are  in  tropical  latitude  these  peaks  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

the  United  States,  and,  as  will  l>o  more  fully  explained  later,  thes< 
plains  have  but  little  rainfall.  However,  these  mountains  do  not 
form  a  barrier  to  the  cold  winds  from  the  north,  consequently  the 
eastern  portion  of  North  America,  including  parts  of  Canada  and 
the  United  States,  have  a  mean   temperature,  lower  than  that  of 


10  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

portions  of  Western  and  Southern  Europe  in  the  same  latitude. 
The  Andes  produce  a  similar  effect  upon  the  countries  of  South 
America.  The  great  mountain  ranges  of  Eurasia  extend  east  and 
west.  In  Europe  the  Alps,  and  in  Asia  the  Himalayas,  protect  the 
regions  to  the  south  of  them  from  the  cold  north  winds,  and  are 
the  means  of  giving  to  these  respective  localities  their  salubrious 
climate.  "Were  it  not  for  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  Italy  would 
not  have  her  sunny  skies,  nor  would  Spain  supply  our  markets 
with  raisins.  Were  it  not  for  the  Himalayas,  India  would  be 
deprived  of  her  tropical  forests,  and  of  the  rainfall  which  enables 
her  soil  to  sustain  millions  of  people. 


QUESTIONS. 

"What  advantages  do  the  tropical  regions  have  over  the  polar  regions  ? 
Do  the  polar  regions  have  any  advantages  over  the  tropical?  If  so,  what 
are  they  ? 

Do  all  parts  of  your  state  have  the  same  amount  of  rainfall?  Ex- 
plain why  in  summer  one  portion  of  a  locality  may  have  a  heavy  fall  of 
rain  while  an  adjoining  portion  receives  none. 

What  is  the  difference  between  rain  and  dew?  Between  dew  and 
frost  ? 


Chapter  IT. 

SOIL  AND  PLANTS. 

At    the    foot   of  :i   cliff  or   large  rock,   you   find  a   pile 

SOIL  • 

of    fragments    grading    in    fineness   from    large    pieces 

down  to  minute  particles  no  larger  than  grains  of*  sand.  Usu- 
ally the  largest  piece-  arc  near  the  foot  of  the  cliff  and  on 
top  of  the  pile,  and  the  finest  farther  away  and  at  the  bottom, 
where  they  gradually  mingle  with  the  adjoining  land  so  that  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  what  part  has  been  formed  from  the  crum- 
bling of  the  rock  and  what  from  some  other  sources.  These  fine 
particles  of  rock  formed  from  the  decomposition  of  the  cliff  consti- 
tute a  portion  of  the  soil  at  its  foot,  while  other  portions  have  been 
formed  l>y  the  decomposition  of  other  rocks,  either  near  by  or  at  a 
distance. 

We  usually  apply  the  term  soil  to  that    portion 
What  Soil  Is     of  fche  surt-.u.e  of  tn(>  ];m(l  tnat  nas  a  depth  of  from 

six  to  ten  inches.  The  greater  part  of  the  soil  is  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  rock  and  a  small  portion  by  the  decay  of  vege- 
table and  animal  substances,  such  as  leaves,  stem-,  roots  and  even 
whole  plants,  and  the  bodies  of  dead  animals.  The  portion  formed 
by  the  decay  of  these  organic  remains  is  called  humus,  and  is  very 
essential  to  the  growth  of  plants. 

Rocks  are  decomposed  by  weathering,  by  the  action  of  water. 
by  the  action  of  wind,  and  by  plants.  The  repeated  warming  and 
cooling  through  successive  changes  of  temperature  in  the  air, 
causes  rocks  to  alternately  expand  and  contract  to  a  slight  degree. 
This  produces  minute  cracks  into  which  water  runs.  In  winter  the 
water  freezes  and  makes  the  cracks  larger,  so  th.it   the  next   season 

U 


12  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

they  hold  more  water,  which  in  its  turn  freezes  and  forces  the  pieces 
still  farther  apart.  In  this  way,  in  the  course  of  years,  fragments 
are  broken  off,  which  in  turn  become  reduced  to  small  particles  and 
form  soil.     The  process  is  slow,  but  it  is  constantly  going  on. 

Heavy  rains  and  melting  snows  wash  the  surface  of  the  rocks 
and  carry  away  small  particles.  Running  water  also  continually 
wears  away  the  rocks  over  which  it  moves.  The  particles  are 
carried  down  stream  and  deposited  at  the  mouth  or  along  the 
banks,  forming  beds  of  deep,  fertile  soil,  like  those  along  the 
lower  part  of  the  Mississippi  and  other  large  rivers.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  Mississippi  deposits  in  this  way  one  hundred  and 
fifty  million  tons  of  fragmented  rock  each  year.  In  the  arid  regions, 
winds  are  constantly  wearing  away  the  rocks  and  depositing  the 
particles  in  masses  called  dunes.  In  form  and  size  these  often  resem- 
ble drifts  of  snow.  Plants  aid  in  the  formation  of  soil  by  decom- 
posing the  rocks  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  and  often  by 
breaking  them  up  by  the  roots  growing  into  the  crevices.  The  force 
of  the  growing  roots  is  often  sufficient  to  split  the  rock  in  pieces. 
Since  soil  is  formed  almost  wholly  of  decom- 
Kinds  of  Soil     p()ged  rockSj  we  should  expect  it  to  have  the 

same  composition  as  the  rock  in  its  locality,  and  such  is  the  case, 
except  where  soil  has  been  transported  and  deposited  by  water  or 
ice-,  as  along  rivers  and  in  beds  of  old  lakes.  According  to  its 
composition  soil  is  known  as  sandy,  clayey,  limey  and  loamy.  The 
soil  is  sandy  when  one-half,  or  more,  of  it  is  composed  of  sand,  and 
clayey  when  it  contains  enough  clay  to  make  it  hard  and  compact 
when  dry,  and  plastic  when  moist.  The  limey  soil  is  composed,  of 
about  one-fifth  lime  and  is  usually  formed  from  decomposed  lime- 
stone. A  loamy  soil,  or  loam,  is  a  happy  mixture  of  these  differ- 
ent kinds,  so  as  to  make  it  most  suitable  for  cultivation.  It  may 
be  known  as  sandy  loam,  clayey  loam,  or  limey  loam,  according 
to  the  amount  of  sand,  clay  or  lime  that  it  contains. 


COMMERCE    ANT)    INDUSTRY  18 

A  light  soil  is  one  that  drains  well,  and  is  so  porous  that  the 
roots  of  plants  can  penetrate  it  to  a  considerable  depth.  A  heavy 
soil  is  usually  compact,  docs  not  drain  readily,  and  often  contains 
so  much  water  that  il  cannot  be  profitably  cultivated  until  drained. 
A  fertile  soil  is  one  in  which  plants  grow  and 
y  thrive.  It  contains  a  good  proportion  of  substances 
upon  which  the  plants  feed,  and  which,  taken  together,  are 
known  as  plant  foods.  The  most  important  of  these  are  nitro- 
gen, the  most  abundant  ingredient  of  the  air,  and  compounds 
containing  potash,  phosphorous,  lime  and  sulphur.  These  suit- 
stances  must  not  only  he  present  in  the  soil,  but  they  must  he  in 
such  a  form  that  the  plants  can  obtain  them.  That  is  they  must 
he  dissolved  by  the  water  present  so  that  they  can  be  taken  into 
the  plant  through  its  minute  rootlets. 

For  this  reason,  water  is  necessary  to  the  productivity  of  the 
soil.  For  the  best  results,  the  amount  of  moisture  must  be  such 
as  will  dissolve  the  required  quantity  of  plant  food,  and  also  supply 
the  plants  with  all  the  water  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  root-  to 
absorb.  More  than  this  is  injurious,  and  if  free  water,  that  is, 
water  that  is  not  absorbed,  is  present,  it  prevents  proper  circula- 
tion of  the  air  in  the  soil,  and  drowns  the  roots.  The  moisture 
most  valuable  to  plant  growth  is  that  which  surrounds  each  part- 
icle of  soil  with  a  thin  film,  similar  to  a  film  that  sticks  to  a  marble 
when  it  is  dipped  in  water.  The  finer  the  soil,  the  greater  the 
amount  of  surface  it  presents  to  the  water,  and  consequently  the 
more  water  it  can  contain  without  becoming  saturated.  If  you  do 
not  have  access  to  a  field  or  garden,  study  the  soil  in  your  'lower- 
pots,  and  notice  that  the  plants  having  a  tine  soil  with  a  good 
quantity  of  humus,  and  just  enough  water  to  keep  it  slightly  damp, 
thrive  the  best.  If  too  much  water  is  present,  the  plants  often  fade 
and  some  of  their  leaves  turn  yellow  and  drop  off. 

By  raising  the  same  crop  on  a  given  field  year   after  year, 


14  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

most  of  the  food  which  that  particular  kind  of  plant,  as  wheat, 
corn,  or  cotton,  requires,  becomes  exhausted,  and  each  successive 
year  the  yield  is  less.  Good  fanners  prevent  the  exhaustion  of 
the  soil  by  what  they  call  "rotation  of  crops,"  as  raising  wheat  on 
a  tield  one  year,  potatoes  the  next,  corn  the  next,  and  following 
this  by  clover.  They  also  increase  the  fertility  by  the  use  of 
manures  and  fertilizers.  Green  crops  when  plowed  under  increase 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Plants  which  belong  to  the  pea  family, 
the  legumes  like  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  etc.,  actually  increase  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  Some  fertilizers  add  plant  food  to 
the  soil,  while  others  increase  the  fertility  by  combining  with  sub- 
stances in  the  soil  and  setting  free  the  plant  food  that  it  already 
contains.  The  same  fertilizer  is  not  equally  valuable  for  all  soils, 
and  the  successful  farmer  learns  what  sort  of  fertilizer  is  best  suited 
to  a  given  field  before  applying  it. 

The  most  productive  soils  are  found  in  the  river  basins,  on 
the  low  slopes  of  hills,  among  the  foothills  of  mountain  ranges,  in 
the  beds  of  ancient  lakes,  and  on  the  great  plains,  wherever  there 
is  sufficient  rainfall  for  agriculture.  Such  regions  sustain  dense 
and  prosperous  populations,  while  those  regions  having  poor  soil, 
as  those  near  the  summit  of  mountains  and  on  the  highlands  in 
hilly  country,  are  unable  to  produce  large  crops,  consequently  such 
regions  are  sparsely  settled,  and  their  people  are  usually  poor. 
This  is  the  reason  why  the  most  prosperous  forming  communities 
in  our  country  are  found  in  the  prairie  regions  and  river  basins. 
THF  WORK  Oyer  some  large  sections  of  country  the  soil  is 
much  deeper  than  over  others.  This  is  largely 
due  to  the  work  of  ice.  In  a  past  geological  age, 
northern  North  America  was  covered  with  a  great  ice-sheet  as  far 
south  as  the  Ohio  and  Missouri  Rivers.  This  ice-sheet  resembled, 
in  structure  and  appearance,  the  glaciers  now  found  in  Switzer- 
land, Alaska,  and  other  localities.     This  ice  moved  towards  the 


COMMERCE    AM)    INDUSTRY  15 

south  and  southwest,  very  much  ;is  the  glaciers  move  down  the 
mountains.  In  many  localities  it  pulverized  the  rock  into  -nil. 
which,  as  the  glacier  melted,  was  deposited  in  its  path  ;  in  other 
localities  it  levelled  hills  and  tilled  up  valleys  and  lake  basins. 
From  many  of  the  elevated  regions  it  carried  the  soil  to  the  low- 
lands, and,  in  general,  it  moved  the  soil  from  north  towards  the 
south.  For  this  reason,  most  of  the  New  England  and  northern 
states  in  the  region  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands  have  a  thin  and 
a  comparatively  poor  soil,  while  in  the  lower  land  of  the  northern 
central  states  the  ice-sheel  deposited  a  deep,  rich  soil.  In  the 
southern  states  the  soil  has  been  made  very  largely  from  the  decay 
of  the  limestone  underneath. 

Plants,   like    animals,    have  a  choice   of  food  ;    some 

PLANTS 

requiring  large  quantities  of  one  substance  and  some 

of  another.     Wheat  requires  more  nitrogen  than  oats,  and  barley 

more   potash  than  wheat.      It  is   probably  safe  to   say  that   no   two 

kinds  of  plants  take  the  same  food  in  the  same  proportions. 

Some  plants  require  much  more  moisture  than  others.     Rice 

will  succeed  only   where  the  ground  can  be   covered   with   water 

after    planting.       The    cactus    will    thrive    on    the    dry    plains    of 

Arizona    and    New    .Mexico,  where    rain   seldom  falls;    while  wheat, 

oats,  and  all  the  common  farm  plants  require  a  medium  amount  of 

moisture.       Corn  thrives   with   less   moisture  than   wheat   or  oats. 

The  soil  of  lowlands  usually  contains  more    water  than  that  of  the 

highlands;   therefore,   some  crops  are   better  adapted  to  the   hills 

and  others  to  the  valleys.       Farmers   take   this    into    account    in 

selecting  ground  for  their  different  crops. 

Some   plants   have   much   greater  power 
Adaptation  of  Plants     lh;m  {){lwys  of  adapting  fcfcemselvea  t(1 

different  soils  and  localities.  Rice  can  be  successfully  grown 
in  the  United  States  only  on  the  lowland-  of  Louisiana,  Texas, 

ami   the   Carolinas,   while    wheat    thrives   from  the  Ohio   River  to 


16  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

Hudson  Buy.  The  sugar-maple  grows  to  gigantic  proportions 
among  the  granite  hills  of  New  England,  but  cannot  live  on  the 
prairies  of  Illinois  ;  while  the  willow  thrives  equally  well  in  both 
localities.     Many  other  similar  illustrations  can  easily  be  found. 

These  peculiarities  of  plants  and  soils,  combined 

an  egions  w-tn  temperature,  produce  many  well  denned 
regions  in  which  certain  plants  thrive  better  than  others. 
Farmers  take  advantage  of  this  fact,  and  raise  the  largest  crops  of 
those  plants  which  thrive  best  in  their  locality.  The  farmers  of 
Dakota  and  Minnesota  raise  wheat;  those  of  Iowa  and  Illinois, 
corn  ;  those  of  Georgia,  cotton  ;  and  those  of  Cuba,  tobacco  and 
sugar-cane.  It  is  owing  to  these  conditions  that  we  have  our 
agricultural  regions  designated  as  wheat  belts,  corn  belts,  and 
cotton  belts.  A  careful  study  of  plants  and  soils  teaches  us  that 
the  industry  of  every  locality  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  nature 
of  its  soil,  its  temperature,  the  amount  of  moisture  it  receives,  and 
the  adaptation  of  certain  crops  to  these  conditions. 

Providing  mankind  with  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  consti- 
tutes the  bulk  of  the  world's  business.  The  soil  is  the  great 
storehouse  from  which  most  of  the  material  for  this  provision  is 
obtained,  and  for  the  purpose  of  fashioning  this  material  into 
useful  products  machines  are  invented,  factories  are  built,  and 
men  and  women  engage  in  toil. 

QUESTIONS. 

Are  any  farms  in  your  locality  more  productive  than  others?  How 
do  you  account  for  their  being  so  ? 

How  can  you  tell  clay  soil  from  sandy  soil? 

Why  will  some  plants  thrive  on  a  hillside  and  not  on  low  land? 
Why  do  others  die  when  taken  from  comparatively  dry  to  wet  soil? 

Explain  the  relation  of  rainfall,  temperature  and  soil  to  the  leading 

crops  raised  in  the  locality  in  which  you  live. 

Note. — Collect  samples  of  soil  from  different  localities,  such  as  the  top  of  a 
hill,  a  valley  near  a  stream,  the  roadside,  etc.,  and  compare  them  as  to  color, 
composition  and  texture.     Try  to  name  each  sample. 


Chapter  III. 
WHY   MAN   ENGAGES   IN    TRADE. 

Uncivilized    people    have    but    tew    wants, 
PRIMITIVE  TRADE     aQ(J    8upply   these  with  their  own   hand8i 

This  is  the  condition  in  which  our  forefathers  found  the  Indians. 
It  is  the  condition  of  numerous  tribes  in  the  interior  of  Africa 
today.  All  trade  is  for  the  purpose  of  satisfying  man's  wants, 
and  just  as  soon  as  a  person  discovers  that  another  has  some- 
thing that  he  himself  does  not  possess,  he  attempts  to  give 
something  of  his  own  in  exchange  for  it.  If  the  second  man  wants 
what  the  first  has  to  offer  more  than  he  does  the  articles  in  his 
possession,  the  exchange  is  made.  In  such  an  exchange,  each  has 
gained,  for  he  believes  that  the  article  which  he  now  possesses  is 
of  more  use  to  him  than  the  one  that  he  gave  in  exchange  for  it. 
As  soon  as  this  discovery  is  made,  trade  springs  up  between 
individuals  and  tribes 

Commerce  is  so  old  that  we  cannot  tell  when  it  began.  The 
records  and  relics  of  the  oldest  people  about  whom  we  have  been 
able  to  learn,  show  that  they  engaged  in  commerce.  The  Indians, 
when  first  known  to  white  men,  carried  on  a  rude  commerce 
between  tribes  situated  some  distance  from  each  other,  and  as  soon 
as  these  people  and  the  Europeans  became  acquainted,  they 
engaged  in  trade,  showing  that  the  red  men  knew  something  of 
the  advantage  to  be  gained  in  an  exchange  of  products.  From 
such  small  beginnings  in  the  distant  past,  commerce  has  continued 
to  increase  from  century  to  century,  until  now  it  is  the  greatesl 
single  industry  in  the  world.  The  principal  reasons  for  this 
growth  are  ; 

17 


18  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

„_w  As  soon  as  the  average  person  learns  of  some- 

thing   new    he    wants    it.       When    the    Indians 

DISCOVERIES    .       °  ,     ,  ..        .     ,  ,      .      -  ,,        ,  .,  , 

learned  of  the  steel  tools  of  the  white  men  and 

saw  what  could  be  accomplished  by  their  use,  they  were  exceed- 
ingly anxious  to  supply  themselves  with  these  tools,  and  were 
willing  to  give,  in  exchange  for  them,  furs  that,  to  the  French  and 
English  traders,  were  worth  many  times  the  value  of  the  imple- 
ments. As  these  traders  became  acquainted  with  the  character 
and  wants  of  the  Indians,  they  introduced  other  articles,  and  in 
this  way  built  up  a  fur  trade,  which  has  continued  even  to  the 
present  day.  This  trade  gave  rise  to  great  corporations,  the  chief 
of  which  was  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
organizations  that  has  ever  existed  in  America.  The  fur  trade 
also  has  made  men  wealthy,  and  led  to  the  exploration,  by  white 
men,  of  that  vast  interior  of  the  continent  which  now  comprises  the 
greater  part  of  Canada  and  the  United  States. 

The  introduction  of  American  products  into  Europe  was 
equally  advantageous.  New  plants,  such  as  the  potato,  tobacco, 
and  cinchona,  were  early  introduced  into  England  and  other 
countries  of  the  old  world.  Their  use  soon  became  so  general  as 
to  lead  to  great  industries  in  the  English  colonies.  The  tobacco 
trade  was  the  foundation  of  Virginia's  prosperity,  and  the  first 
step  which  led  to  the  introduction  of  slavery  into  the  United 
States.  These  are  only  a  few  instances  which  illustrate  how  each 
new  discovery  and  each  new  invention  has  created  new  wants,  and 
that  the  desire  to  satisfy  these  wants  has  led  to  the  exchange  of 
products. 

niVISTON        Among  savage  nations,  partially  civilized  people, 

and  even  civilized  people  settling  in  a  new  coun- 

OF  LABOR  ,    .     .,  i-  i      n  •+  <- 

try,  each  family  supplies  nearly  all  its  own  wants. 

This  makes  it  necessary  for  each  one  to  engage  in  a  variety  of 

occupations.     As  a  result,  no  one  becomes  skilful  in  any  occupa- 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY  19 

tion.  This  was  the  case  with  the  early  settlers  of  New  England. 
The  men  of  the  family  tilled  the  land,  made  and  repaired  the  farm 
implements,  harvested  and  threshed  the  grain,  and  often  ground  it 
into  Hour  in  a  rude  mill  of  their  own  construction.  The  women  of 
the  household,  in  addition  to  caring  for  the  house,  spun  the  yarn, 
wove  the  cloth,  and  made  the  garments  for  the  family.  Every 
farmer  had  to  keep  on  hand  numerous  tools  that  were  only  used 
occasionally,  and  every  house  contained  a  spinning-wheel  and 
loom.  Under  these  conditions,  but  little  progress  was  made, 
since,  from  year  to  year,  it  was  all  that  each  family  could  do  to 
supply  its  members  with  the  necessaries  of  life. 

As  communities  became  established,  people  learned  that  it 
was  more  economical  for  some  to  do  one  thing  continually  and 
others  another.  Some  men  in  the  old  New  England  settlements 
soon  showed  greater  skill  than  others  in  the  making  and  repairing 
of  farmers'  implements,  and  farmers  soon  learned  that  it  was  better 
to  engage  such  men  to  do  this  work  and  pay  them  in  the  produce 
of  their  farms,  than  it  was  to  do  the  work  themselves.  They 
had  better  implements,  and  secured  them  at  less  expense.  More- 
over, if  they  did  not  have  to  repair  their  own  tools  and  imple- 
ments, they  could  dispense  with  a  great  many  tools  that  before 
were  necessary. 

This  is  a  good  illustration  of  how  occupations  arise  in  any 
community.  Each  occupation  supplies  some  want,  and  if  that 
want  contributes  to  the  welfare  and  true  happiness  of  the  people, 
it  helps  all  other  occupations.  This  is  what  we  mean  by  division 
of  labor.  Under  such  a  plan  of  work,  each  member  of  a  com- 
munity engages  in  the  occupation  for  which  he  is  best  fitted.  Each 
workman  becomes  skilful  in  his  work  because  he  gives  his  entire 
attention  to  it.  He  can  also  produce  more  than  he  could  if  he 
were  to  engage  in  several  occupations.  Hence  we  have  carpenters. 
blacksmiths,  merchants,  farmers  and  those  engaged  in   numerous 


20  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

other  occupations.     Of  course  all  tradesmen  supply  their  wants 

by  an  exchange  of  products.     Look  about  you  and  see  how  many 

different  occupations  there  are  in  your  vicinity,  and  then  try  to 

find  a  good  reason  for  each. 

By  aptitude,  we  mean  natural  ability  or  inclination 
APTITUDE      +  J  /  '  aii  .1  a        ±i 

to  do  anything.     As  already  stated,  we  find  that 

some  people  like  to  do  one  thing  better,  and  sOme  another.  Each 
naturally  desires  to  follow  the  occupation  that  he  likes.  One 
wants  to  be  a  mechanic,  another  a  farmer,  and  another  a  musician. 
Others  want  to  be  artists,  and  still  others  professional  men,  and 
so  on.  But  each  of  these  will  try  to  find  the  opportunity  to  do 
what  he  likes,  and  out  of  these  desires  a  variety  of  occupations 
arise.  This  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  we  shall  have  divi- 
sion of  labor  within  each  community,  which  leads  to  the  exchange 
of  products  ;  but  in  this  case  the  division  of  labor  arises  more  from 
the  desire  of  the  individual  than  the  interests  of  the  community. 
Some  localities  are  suited  to  one  line  of  industry 

and  others  to  another.     We  cannot  raise  wheat 

INDUSTRIES  ,  ,   .  •  1 1       ,i     -i 

and  corn  on  mountains,  nor  mine  gold  and  silver 

on  the  prairies.  It  is  economical  for  the  inhabitants  of  mountain- 
ous regions  to  give  their  time  to  mining,  quarrying  and  lumbering, 
exchanging  their  products  with  the  people  of  the  plains  ;  and  it  is 
just  as  economical  for  the  people  of  the  prairies  to  exchange  their 
wheat  and  corn  for  the  gold,  silver,  stone  and  lumber  of  the  moun- 
tains. Each  produce  more  than  they  could  if  they  attempted  to 
supply  all  their  wants  by  their  own  labor.  Manufacturing  centers 
are  built  up  on  the  same  plan.  In  those  localities  where  fuel  and 
water  are  abundant,  goods  can  be  manufactured  more  cheaply,  and 
usually  to  better  advantage,  than  in  mining  or  agricultural  districts. 

„,„.„ As   men   have   become   acquainted   with  different 

INFLUENCE  .  .  ,  .       ..  4    .  .       ,  e 

countries  and  peoples,  they  have  found  some  of 
OF  TRAVEL 

the  products  of  these  lands  and  nations  desirable. 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  21 

Most  of  us  would  feel  that  we  were  deprived  of  a  necessity  if  we 
could  not  get  tea,  coffee,  or  spices,  and  all  of  these  are  grown  in 
tropical,  or  semi-tropical  countries.  Likewise,  the  people  who 
raise  tea,  coffee  and  spices  are  glad  to  exchange  them  for  wheat- 
flour,  cotton  goods,  machinery,  and  other  articles  manufactured  in 
the  United  States  and  European  countries. 

Means  of  travel   are   now    so   perfect  and 
ADVANCEMENT  OF  .,    .         ,-,,', 

extensive,  that   each   civilized    nation    bas 

CIVILIZATION  become  acquainted  with  the   whole  world, 

and  each  nation  is  likewise  making  all  parts  of  the  world,  whether 
civilized  or  uncivilized,  acquainted  with  its  industries.  As  this 
acquaintance  is  extended,  new  articles  are  discovered  and  a  desire 
for  them  is  created,  and  this  leads  to  a  further  exchange  of 
products.  It  has  been  said  that  raising  the  standard  of  civilization 
increases  man's  wants,  and  the  extensive  commerce  carried  on  by 
the  most  enlightened  nations  would  lead  one  to  think  this  state- 
ment to  be  true. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  will  a  boy  trade  a  knife  for  a  ball,  or  a  pair  of  skates  for  a  dog? 

Did  the  Indians  engage  in  trade  before  they  became  acquainted  with 
the  white  men?     Why  d<>  y<>n  think  so? 

Can  you  think  of  any  discovery  or  invention  that  has  increased  com- 
merce?    If  so,  name  it. 

What  occupation  would  you  like  to  follow?      Why? 

Show  how  the  location  of  a  factory  in  a  town  increases  tin-  trade. 

Why  has  commerce  increased  so  rapidly  in  the  last  twenty  years? 


CONDUCTORS  OF  CARAVANS  IN  AFRICA 


Chapter  IV. 
TRANSPORTATION. 

„„„„„,,    n,n„n.n,™,n.,     As  we  have   seen,  every  locality   is 
UNEQUAL  DISTRIBUTION       .     ,    ,   .  .  f  ..         ;  . 

adapted  to  some  special    line  or  m- 

OF  COMMODITIES  ,         ,    ,    ,.  . ,     ,  ,       ,  , 

(lustry,  and  each  individual   has   his 

preference  for  some  particular  occupation.  These  conditions  lav 
the  foundations  for  commerce  ;  hut  without  the  necessary  means  of 
transportation  trade  between  individuals  or  nations  would  be  lim- 
ited to  very  narrow  restrictions.  The  third  great  factor  in  com- 
merce, then,  is  transportation.  The  unequal  distribution  of 
commodities  can  be  overcome  only  by  carrying  goods  from  the 
locality  where  they  are  produced  to  those  localities  where  they  are 
consumed.  The  principal  agents  in  transportation  are  animals, 
railways,  and  water. 

,    .        ™    .  ..„       Among  savage  tribes  all  carrying  of  goods  is 
ANIMAL  TRANS-     ,      ,  ,  ,  %  ,,°       Al  . 

by  human   labor,  and  in  many  ot   them  this 

PORTATION  i  ,         •  f-  i     , 

labor    is    performed     by    women,    a    custom 

which  still  exists  in  some  portions  of  Africa  and  in  some  other 
regions  far  removed  from  civilization.  In  most  parts  of  the  world, 
however,  beasts  of  burden  have  taken  the  place  of  men  for  trans- 
porting goods.  However,  there  are  some  places  where,  because 
of  the  nature  of  the  country,  only  men  can  be  employed.  In  the 
interior  of  Africa,  the  forests  are  so  dense  that  paths  for  the 
passage  of  the  animals  have  not  been  made,  and  in  some  portions 
of  that  continent,  the  tsetse  fly,  whose  sting  is  fatal  to  horses  and 
cattle,  makes  it  impossible  to  employ  these  animals  for  any  purpose. 
Human  labor  is  also  used  in  the  dense  thickets  of  the  Amazon  and 
over  some  mountain  trails  where  beasts  of  burden  cannot  travel. 

23 


24 


COMMERCE  AND   INDUSTRY 


This  is  the  most  expensive  means  of  carrying  goods.  A  man 
can  carry  but  a  few  pounds — usually  not  more  than  sixty  —  and 
his   progress  is  slow.      When   men  are   employed,  they  travel  in 


ELEPHANTS  USED  FOR  PACK  ANIMALS,  CEYLON 


large  companies,  called  caravans  ;  hut  caravans  are  employed  only 
when  other  means  of  transportation  are  not  practicable. 

It  would  seem  that  animals  have  been  used  for  carrying  goods 
in  all  ages.     The  animal  employed  depends  very  much  upon  the 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  2;"> 

locality  and  the  nature  of  the  work.     In  the  far  north  we  find  the 

esquimau  using   dogs   to   haul  his   sledge,   while   in    Finland   and 

Siberia  the  reindeer  is  used  for  the  same  purpose.     The  camel  is 

especially  suited  to  desert   countries,  because  he  can  travel  a  long 

time  without  food  or  water.      His  feet  are  adapted  to  the  sands  and 

gravel  over  which  he  has  to  travel,  and  he  is  not  affected   by  the 

intense  heat ;  hence  we  find  the  camel  in  general  use  in  northern 

Africa,  Arabia,  and   a    few    other  portions  of  western    Asia.      In 

India  the  elephant  has  been  domesticated,  and  is  often  used  as  a 

beast  of  burden.      In  the  mountains  of  South  America  we  find  the 

llama  used  to  climb  the  steep  and  narrow  mountain  paths,  and  on 

the  plains  of  Thibet  the  yak   is  employed  for  a  similar  purpose. 

With  these  exceptions,  the  horse,  the  ass,  the   mule,  and  the  ox, 

are  the  beasts  of  burden  of  the  civilized  world.     These  animals  arc 

especially  adapted  to  a  temperate  climate,  and  are  more  generally 

used  than  any  others. 

Formerly,  all  transportation  was  by  means  of  fastening 
Roads  . 

goods  to  the  animal's  back,  but  later  the  cart  was  added, 

and  the  animal  hauled  the  load  instead  of  carrying  it.  The  use  of 
the  cart  necessitated  the  construction  of  roads,  and  as  the  vehicle 
improved  in  size  and  style,  broader  and  better  roads  were  required. 
Country  roads  are  of  two  kinds,  generally  known  as  dirt 
roads  and  stone  roads.  The  dirt  road  is  made  either  by  wearing  a 
path  over  the  land  by  continuous  travel,  or  by  plowing  and 
scraping  the  soil  into  a  rounded  form  for  a  roadbed.  This  is  the 
kind  of  road  found  over  most  of  the  United  States.  Dirt  roads 
are  very  unsatisfactory  ;  in  dry  weather  they  are  laden  with  dust, 
and  in  wet  weather  the  depth  of  mud  makes  them  almost  impas- 
sable. Stone  roads  are  usually  called  macadamized  roads.  They 
are  made  by  treating  the  surface  with  crushed  stone,  which  is 
rolled  down  and  pressed  into  the  earth  by  a  heavy  steel  roller. 
These  roads  have  a  hard,  even  surface  which  is  seldom  affected  by 


26 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


frosts  or  rain,  and  remains  in  good  condition  for  a  long  term  of 
years.  The  British  Isles  and  most  of  the  other  countries  of 
Europe  have  roads  of  this  sort.  While  transportation  by  animals 
is  much  cheaper  than  that  by  human  labor,  it  is  still  very 
expensive.     Good   roads  tend  to  lessen  the  expense  to  a  consid- 


THE  "ROCKET,"  THE    FIRST   SUCCESSFUL   LOCOMOTIVE 

From  the  photograph  of  a  model  in  the  Field  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago 

erable  degree,  and  are  of  the  greatest  importance  in  agricultural 

districts. 

Railroads  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  attempt  to  con- 
struct    good    roads,   and   were   first    designed    for 

carriages  hauled  by  horses.     The  first  railroads  in  which  we  are 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  27 

interested  were  built  in  England  early  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
for  the  purpose  of  hauling  coal  from  the  mines.  They  had  wooden 
rails  fastened  to  wooden  sleepers.  The  first  great  improvement 
over  this  style  of  road  was  made  by  fastening  a  thin  plate  of  iron 
to  the  upper  surface  of  the  rail,  and  in  about  1790  iron  rails  came 
into  use. 

In  1825,  a  railway  was  opened  between  Stockton  and 
Darlington,  England.  This  road  was  thirty-seven  miles  long,  and 
it  was  the  intention  of  the  managers  to  haul  the  carriages  with 
horses.  In  1829,  George  Stephenson  invented  the  first  successful 
locomotive.  This  machine  was  able  to  travel  at  the  rate  of  from 
sixteen  to  twenty  miles  an  hour,  and  to  haul  a  heavy  load. 
Stephenson's  invention  marks  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  It  changed  the  method  of  transportation  by  land,  and 
made  the  opening  up  of  new  countries  a  possibility. 

The  first  railroad  in  the  United  States  extended  from  the 
granite  quarries  in  Quincy,  Mass.,  to  the  coast.  It  was  a  road 
having  wooden  rails  with  iron  straps.  The  first  use  of  this  road 
was  to  haul  granite  for  the  construction  of  Bunker  Hill  monument. 
[n  1830,  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Kail  way  was  opened  for  traffic, 
and  this  date  also  marks  the  beginning  of  the  use  of  the  locomotive 
in  the  United  States. 

Railways  are  now  found  in  nearly  all  civilized  countries. 
Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  water  transportation  is  cheaper  than 
transportation  by  rail,  all  of  the  count  lies  of  Western  Europe,  as 
well  as  the  United  States,  have  most  of  their  goods  carried  over 
railways.  Lines  are  constructed,  not  only  between  the  great 
centers  of  trads  like  London  and  Liverpool,  or  New  York  and 
Boston,  but  also  across  vast  stretches  of  country  connecting  ocean 
with  ocean  like  the  transcontinental  lines  in  the  United  States  and 
British  America,  and  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  extending  from 
Moscow  to  the  Pacific  coast.      Up  to  the  present  time  nearly  all 


28  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

great  trunk  lines  of  railway  run  east  and  west,  but  the  Cape-to- 
Cairo  Railway  now  in  the  process  of  construction  through  Africa 
extends  north  and  south. 

Railway  transportation  is  economical  because  it  is  so  much 
quicker  than  any  other,  and  with  many  classes  of  freight,  such  as 
fruit,  fresh  meat,  and  other  perishable  material,  time  is  an  impor- 
tant factor.  Railways  seek  centers  of  trade,  and  we  find  numerous 
lines  meeting  in  all  large  cities. 

The  present  railway  is  as  great  an  improvement  over  those 

first  constructed  as  the  original  railway  was  over  the  dirt  road  of 

the  country.     Forty  years  ago  a  good  freight  locomotive  could 

haul  a  load  of  about  four  hundred  tons  on  a  level  track,  but  since 

the  invention  of  Bessemer  steel,  locomotives  are  constructed  that 

can  haul  from  four  to  five  thousand  tons  more  easily  than  the  older 

ones  could  one-tenth  of  that  amount.     There  has  also  been  a  great 

improvement    in    speed ;    through-freight    trains   now  travel  at  a 

higher  rate  of  speed  than  did  the  passenger  trains  at  the  close  of 

the  Civil  War. 

_,.     ,   .     _,   „  In    addition    to    the    steam    railway    whose 

Electric  Railways  .  J        .  . 

construction  requires  great  expense  and  is 

confined  to  sections  of  the  country  over  whose  surface  the  road- 
way can  be  graded,  we  now  have  the  electric  railway  threading 
many  agricultural  communities  and  making  transportation  from 
the  country  to  the  town  both  cheap  and  easy.  The  electric  rail- 
way uses  lighter  cars  and  motors,  and  can  be  operated  over  grades 
that  are  impracticable  for  steam  railways.  On  this  account  it  is 
fast  becoming  a  very  important  factor  in  the  transportation  of 
passengers  and  merchandise.  The  electric  railway  in  the  country 
is  of  great  benefit  to  the  farmer.  It  carries  his  produce  to  market 
and  leaves  him  time  to  produce  more  —  another  illustration  of  the 
benefits  derived  from  the  division  of  labor. 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  29 

m«. » »»nAnm . _.,»,     Rivera    are    our    most   natural    commercial 
TRANSPORTATION 

routes.       J  liev    connect    llie    coasi    with    the 

BY  WATER  ...         e  .;  i    .       r  i, 

interior  ot  the  country,  and   by  tollowing 

them,  communication  along  their  course  is  made  cheap  and  easy. 

The  great  rivers  have  ever  been  the  natural  highways  of  commerce. 
Even  the  uncivilized  nations  living  along  their  hanks  always 
engaged  in  trade  with  tribes  living  farther  up  or  down  stream. 
The  great  commercial  rivers  of  Europe  are  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  Elbe, 
Oder,  Vistula,  Danube  and  Volga,  and  it  is  next  to  impossible  to 
find  a  time  when  these  streams  were  not  important  channels  of 
trade.  The  old  rowboats  of  the  ancients  have  now  given  place  to 
those  propelled  by  sail  and  steam.  We  find  great  cities  at  mouths 
of  these  rivers  and  on  their  banks.  The  value  of  many  of  them 
for  transportation  has  been  improved  by  removal  of  obstructions, 
such  as  blasting  the  rock  from  Iron  Gate  in  the  Danube,  and  also 
by  deepening  their  channels  through  dredging. 

Streams  that  have  been  deepened  in  this  way  are  often  called 
canalized  rivers.  Russia's  navigable  rivers  measure  over  80,000 
miles,  and  exceed  in  extent  those  of  any  other  country.  France, 
Germany  and  Austria  also  make  extensive  use  of  their  native 
streams.  In  India  the  Ganges,  in  China  the  Yangtse,  and  other 
rivers  are  equally  important  for  those  countries;  the  Amazon 
and  Platte  and  their  tributaries  admit  large  boats  for  more  than 
a  thousand  miles  from  the  coast,  wliilc  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Mississippi  systems  connect  the  vast  interior  of  North  America 
with  the  sea. 

Canals  are  constructed  cither  to  enable  bouts  to  pass 
around  an  obstruction,  like  falls  or  rapids  in  a  river, 
or  for  the  purpose  of  shortening  distances  between  points.  The 
Welland  Canal  in  Ontario  is  a  good  illustration  of  those  constructed 
for  the  first  purpose.  This  canal  overcomes  the  difficulty  presented 
by  Niagara  Falls,  while  the  Kiel,  or  Kaiser  Wilhelra  Canal,  con- 


30  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

necting  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas,  is  a  good  illustration  of  the 
second.  The  Suez  Canal  is  the  most  important  ship  canal  now 
completed.     It  is  100  miles  long,  400  feet  wide  at  its  surface,  and 

31  feet  deep.  Its  construction  completely  changed  the  ocean  routes 
between  Europe  and  the  East.  By  passing  through  the  Suez 
Canal  and  the  Red  Sea,  ships  from  European  ports  save  over  4000 
miles  in  going  to  Calcutta  or  ports  in  China  and  Japan,  and  more 
than    4000  ships  pass  through  this  canal  in  a  year. 

The  Panama  Canal,  now  in  the  process  of  construction,  will, 
when  completed,  be  of  even  greater  importance,  and  will  change 
the  course  of  much  of  the  commerce  now  carried  on  between 
European  and  Asiatic  ports,  and  Europe  and  Australia.  This 
canal  will  also  shorten  the  voyage  of  ships  passing  between  the 
eastern  ports  of  the  United  States  and  the  western  ports  of  South 
America  more  than    4000  miles. 

Other  important  canals  saving  distances  are  the  Caledonia, 
extending  across  the  southern  part  of  Scotland,  and  the  Corinth 
Canal,  crossing  the  peninsula  of  Greece.  Numerous  canals  exist 
in  the  United  States  and  European  countries  for  the  purpose  of 
connecting  lakes  with  rivers,  or  connecting  rivers  with  each  other. 
All  these  make  transportation  cheap  and  easy. 

The  sea  is  the  highway  of  nations.  Upon  it  most 
ucean  nouies  ^  oul,  international  commerce  is  carried,  and 
established  ocean  routes  between  all  important  countries  and  seaports 
have  been  in  existence  for  centuries.  Formerly,  sailing  vessels 
alone  were  used,  but  even  before  the  application  of  steam  power  to 
the  hauling  of  merchandise  over  the  land,  this  power  was  applied 
to  navigation.  Of  almost  equal  importance  to  the  invention  of  the 
locomotive  by  Stephenson,  was  the  invention  of  the  steamboat  by 
Robert  Fulton,  in  1807.  The  first  steamboat  crossed  the  Atlantic 
in  1819,  and  the  trip  required  twenty-two  days.  The  first  ocean 
steamers  were  propelled  by  paddle-wheels,  and  were  smaller  than 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY  .,  i 

many  boats  now  found  upon  large  lakes.  They  were  slow  and 
could  carry  only  small  cargoes. 

The  first  great  improvement  in  ocean  steamers  was  the  intro- 
duction of  the  screw-propeller  in  place  of  the  paddle-wheel.  With 
this  change  of  motor  came  the  change  in  plan  which  has  given  us 
the  ocean  liners  noted  for  their  size,  speed  and  safety.  Some  of 
the  largest  of  these  ships  are  more  than  700  feet  in  length,  and 
the  swiftest  of  them  can  make  the  trip  from  New  York  to  Liver- 
pool in  less  than  six  days,  while  the  average  freighl  steamers 
require  about  nine  days.  Some  of  these  ships  can  carry  a  cargo 
of  30,000  tons,  and  as  the  result  of  the  perfection  in  machinery 
and  the  increase  in  the  size,  expense  of  carrying  freight  has 
been  greatly  reduced.  It  is  now  possible  to  carry  wheat  IV. mi 
Dakota  to  Liverpool  at  a  price  not  exceeding  21  cents  per 
bushel,  and  the  rates  are  proportionately  low  for  other  dis- 
tances. There  were,  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century, 
about  90,000  sailing  vessels,  and  30,000  steamships  engaged  in 
the  world's  commerce.  Of  this  number,  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies  claimed  about  35,000,  and  the  United  States  some 
over  20,0oo. 

National  governments  aid   navigation   by  removing  obstruc- 
ts O  v  o 

tions  to  the  entrances  to  harbors,  constructing  piers,  building  and 
maintaining  lighthouses  and  buoys  to  mark  dangerous  shoals,  or 
to  guide  vessels  through  the  proper  channels  when  entering  or 
leaving  harbors.  They  also  establish  rules  tor  the  management  of 
ocean-going  vessels,  when  within  three  miles  of  shore,  so  that  no 
one  shall  trespass  upon  the  rights  of  another,  or  place  other  vessels 
in  danger  by  running  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  in  narrow  and  dan- 
gerous channels.  All  large  vessels  are  taken  into  and  out  of  port 
by  pilots  who,  having  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  harbor,  are 
able  to  guide  the  ships  through  the  most  tortuous  channels. 

Transportation  by  water  is  cheaper  than  by  land,  because  most 


32  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

of  the  waterways  are  natural,  like  seas,  lakes,  and  rivers,  while 
roads  and  railways  must  be  constructed  at  great  expense.  Another 
reason  is  that  the  same  quantity  of  freight  can  be  carried  on  ship 
at  less  actual  expense  of  labor,  fuel,  and  wear  of  machinery,  than 
by  rail. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  are  not  camels  and  elephants  used  as  beasts  of  burden  in  the 
United  States? 

What  sort  of  wagon  roads  are  found  in  your  country  ?  Can  you  tell 
how  these  roads  might  be  improved? 

How  is  money  for  building  and  repairing  roads  obtained? 

Which  would  you  prefer :   a  trip  by  rail  or  one  by  boat  ?     Why  ? 

Why  can  electric  railways  lie  constructed  where  steam  railways  can  not? 

Of  what  advantage  is  the  electric  railway  to  those  who  hve  in  the 
country? 

Why  are  locks  placed  in  canals?     How  do  they  operate? 

Did  you  ever  see  any  work  that  had  been  erected  by  the  government 
to  aid  navigation?     If  so,  what  was  it? 


;ol 


PART  TWO. 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Chapter  I. 
POSITION,  SURFACE  AND  CLIMATE. 

The  United  States  occupies  the  central   portion  of 
POSITION 

North  America,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 

on  the  east,  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west,  and  from  the  4!»th 
parallel  north  latitude  on  the  north,  to  nearly  the  25th  parallel  on 
the  south.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is  1780  miles; 
its  greatest  breadth  from  cast  to  west  is  3100  miles,  and  its  area 
including  Alaska,  is  3,595,(500  square  miles.  It  is  exceeded  in 
area  by  the  British  Empire,  the  Russian  Empire  and  the  Chinese 
Empire,  hut  it  excels  each  of  these  in  the  advantages  of  its  geo- 
graphical position. 

The   United  States   is   naturally   divided   into   five 

regions:     (1)    The    Atlantic   Slope   and    Coastal 

FEATURES      pkin .    (2)   the   Appalachian   Highlands;    (3)    the 

Central  Plain  and  Lake  Regions;  (4)  the  Rocky  Mountain  Pla- 
teau; (5)  the  Pacific  Slope.  Each  of  these  regions  contains 
numerous  subdivisions  which  are  distinguished  by  their  character- 
istics of  surface,  climate  and  products. 

In   the    northern    section    of  this    region, 
The  Atlantic  Slope         .      r       ,.        .k  .  .     -  Jz  . 

^       extending  trom  the  eastern  point  of    Maine 

to  Long  Island,  the  mountains  and  hills  approach  near  to  the  coast, 
the  slope  is  steep,  and  the  surface  is  very  uneven  and  rocky.  The 
soil  is  hard  to  till,  but  in  many  sections  it  is  quite  fertile,  while 

33 


34  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

in  others  it  is  almost  barren.  The  streams  are  shallow,  clear  and 
rapid,  affording  in  many  places  excellent  water  power  which  is  used 
to  operate  the  numerous  factories  in  this  locality.  Only  a  few  of 
the  streams  are  navigable,  and  these  for  but  a  short  distance. 

That  portion  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  extending  from  Long 
Island  southward  is  frequently  called  the  Coastal  Plain.  The  hills 
and  mountains  here  are  farther  inland,  and  the  slope  to  the  shore- 
line is  gradual,  terminating  in  a  plain  which  in  some  places  is 
nearly  level.  This  plain  is  narrowest  at  the  north,  and  gradually 
broadens  until  it  reaches  its  greatest  width  in  North  Carolina  oppo- 
site Cape  Hat  terns. 

That  portion  of  the  plain  next  to  the  shore-line  is  low,  level, 
and  sandy,  and  the  surface  is  poorly  drained.  This  strip  is  about 
fifty  miles  wide,  and  rises  inland  from  two  to  three  feet  to  the 
mile.  Adjoining  this  is  a  more  fertile  strip,  whose  slope  is  more 
rapid  and  drainage  good;  Large  quantities  of  cotton  are  raised  on 
this  higher  strip.  Still  farther  inland,  varying  from  fifty  to  one 
hundred  miles,  lie  the  low  hilly  uplands •  largely  covered  with 
forests  of  yellow  pine.  The  cleared  lands  in  this  strip  also  raise 
excellent  cotton  and  other  crops.  The  lower  plain  contains  exten- 
sive swamps  and  numerous  lagoons.  Here  the  rivers  are  sluggish, 
and  many  of  t'lem  are  navigable  for  steamers.  At  the  point  where 
the  rivers  descend  from  the  higher  to  the  lower  plain,  called  the 
fall-line,  good  water  power  is  afforded.  Along  this  line,  on  most 
of  the  rivers,  we  find  numerous  manufacturing  towns.  Some 
of  these,  notably  Philadelphia,  Trenton,  Richmond,  Raleigh,  and 
Augusta,  have  become  important  cities.  At  the  mouths  of  some 
of  these  rivers,  seaports  are  located.  These  make  commercial 
connection  with  the  outer  world,  while  at  the  fall-line  there  is 
usually  an  industrial  and  commercial  center  for  each  locality. 
When,  as  in  the  case  of  Philadelphia,  this  center  serves  both  pur- 
poses, it  becomes  a  large  city. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  3.> 

The  Atlantic  coast  line  is  very  irregular.  In  the  north  the 
highlands  approach  quite  close  to  the  shore,  an<i  the  slopes  are 
steep,  giving  to  the  shore  waters  sufficient  depth  to  float  the 
largest  ships.  The  const  of  Maine  is  dissected  by  numerous 
drowned  valleys,  and  some  of  these,  as  Penobscot,  Sheep-cot  and 
Casco  Bays,  form  excellent  harbors,  and  Portsmouth,  N.  II.,  is 
situated  on  a  similar  harbor.  South  of  Cape  Cod.  we  find  the 
deeper  indentations — Long  Island  Sound  and  New  York  Bay, 
Delaware  Bay  and  Chesapeake  Bay,  on  each  of  which  are  import- 
ant seaports.  South  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  the  shore  line  is  more 
even,  the  slope  gentler  and  the  offshore  waters  are  more  shallow. 
In  many  places  are  sunken  reefs  that  make  navigation  dangerous. 
On  account  of  these  conditions  there  are  very  few  good  harbors 
along  this  division  of  the  coast. 

This  region  occupies  a  long,  narrow 
Appalachian  Highlands     stHp  ot- C()untiy?  beginning  with  the 

Laurentian  Highlands  and  extending  almost  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  It  consists  of  parallel  ranges  of  low  mountains,  separated 
by  narrow  valleys,  through  which  flow  rapid  streams.  From 
north  to  south,  these  highlands  are  naturally  divided  into  three 
sections:  the  northern,  including  the  mountains  of  Maine,  the 
White  Mountains  in  New  Hampshire,  the  Green  Mountain-  in 
Vermont  and  Massachusetts,  and  the  Adirondacks  and  Catskills  in 
New  York.  The  ranges  in  this  section  are  more  broken  than  in 
the  other.  In  the  past  ages,  glaciers  rounded  and  smoothed  some 
of  the  summits  and  denuded  them  of  their  soil,  and,  in  some 
instances,  so  cut  their  way  across  the  ranges  as  to  form  cross 
valleys  that  leave  here  and  there  solitary  peaks.  The  Hudson  is 
the  only  large  river  in  this  section  that  has  cut  its  way  to  the  sea 
through  the  ranges. 

The  middle  section  comprises  the  ranges  extending  from  the 
southern  part  of  New  York  to  the  Cumberland  Gap.     The  princi- 


36  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

pal  ranges  of  this  section  are  the  Blue  Ridge,  the  Shenandoah  and 
the  Alleghanies.  These  ranges  are  more  nearly  parallel  than  those 
of  the  northern  section,  and  through  them  the  Delaware,  the 
Susquehanna  and  the  Potomac  cut  their  way  to  the  sea. 

The  southern  section  extends  from  the  middle  section  across 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina  into  Georgia  and  Alabama,  the 
principal  ranges  being  the  Blue  Ridge,  Great  Smoky  and  Cum- 
berland. The  division  between  the  middle  and  southern  sections 
is  not  distinctly  marked,  and  the  Potomac  could  be  taken  for  the 
dividing  line  with  equal  propriety.  The  Appalachians  reach  their 
greatest  altitude  in  the  southern  section,  and  here  the  ranges  are 
almost  uniformly  parallel. 

In  each  section,  the  valleys,  through  which  the  larger  rivers 
reach  the  sea,  form  the  natural  gateways  to  the  vast  interior  of  the 
country,  and  it  was  through  these  that  the  earliest  emigration 
proceeded  westward.  Later,  traffic  that  arose  from  this  emigra- 
tion gave  the  towms,  located  on  the  lower  course  of  the  rivers, 
advantages  which  have  made  them  great  commercial  centers. 

Originally,  the  Appalachian  Highlands  w7ere  covered  with 
forests,  but  in  the  north  most  of  the  valuable  timber  has  been 
cut,  though  in  Maine  lumbering  is  still  quite  an  important 
industry.  In  the  south  the  forests  remain,  and  in  North  Carolina 
and  Georgia  lumbering  and  the  manufacture  of  tar  and  turpentine 
give  employment  to  a  large  number  of  people. 

In  the  middle  section,  numerous  transverse  valleys  divide  the 
highlands  into  distinct  plateaus.  Some  of  these  valleys  are  so 
narrow  as  to  resemble  canyons,  and  streams  flow  through  them 
all.  Along  the  borders  of  these  streams  the  sojl  is  deep  and 
fertile,  and  here  we  find  many  small  but  successful  farms.  The 
soil  of  the  uplands,  while  admissible  of  cultivation,  is  not  as  fertile 
as  that  of  the  valleys. 

The  mineral   resources  of  this  region  are  almost   boundless. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  37 

Granite,  limestone,  slate  and  marble  are  found  in  the  northern 
division  ;  slate,  coal,  petroleum  and  iron  in  the  middle  ;  and  marble, 
coal  and  iron  in  the  southern  division.  The  development  of  these 
resources  in  Pennsylvania  has  been  the  chief  cause  of  that  state's 
prosperity,  and  the  proximity  of  coal  and  iron  to  Pittsburg  have 
made  that  city  the  greatest  iron  manufacturing  center  in  the  world. 
The  Central  Plain  is  naturally  divided  into 
Central  Plain     three    regions.    thc  prairje    Region,   the   Lake 

Region  and  the  Great  Plains. 

The  prairie  region  extends  from  the  western  slope  of  Appala- 
chian Highlands  to  the  eastern  border  of  the  Great  Plains,  and 
from  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Canadian  boundary  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  embraces  all  of  the  most  fertile  portion  of  the  great 
Mississippi  basin.  The  western  slope  of  the  Appalachian  High- 
lands gradually  merges  into  the  rolling  prairies  of  Ohio,  which,  in 
turn,  blend  with  the  great  level  prairies  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
other  states  bordering  on  the  Mississippi.  Save  where  it  is  broken 
by  the  Ozark  Mountains,  this  vast  region  is  practically  treeless  and 
level  or  slightly  rolling.  It  is  free  from  stones,  and  has  a  deep 
and  fertile  soil.  With  their  excellent  climate  and  abundant  rain- 
fall, the  prairies  are  adapted  to  raising  large  crops,  and  they  form 
the  most  important  agricultural  region  of  the  world.  It  now  sus- 
tains a  population  of  over  thirty  millions,  and  besides,  exports 
a  large  proportion  of  its  products  of  corn,  wheat,  beef  and  pork  to 
other  parts  of  the  Union,  and  to  several  of  the  countries  of  Europe. 

Thc  oil  fields  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands  extend  through 
Ohio,  and  cover  a  small  portion  of  Indiana.  Considerable  natural 
gas  is  also  found  in  the  same  localities.  Extensive  beds  of  bitu- 
minous  coal  underlie  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois,  affording  sufficient 
fuel  to  supply  the  entire  country  for  centuries. 

The  rivers  all  How  into  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  or  Missouri. 
Most  of  these  tributaries  are  small  and  shallow,  and   have   only  a 

4  5  titi  5 


38  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

moderate  current.  Soon  after  the  country  was  settled,  canals 
were  constructed  connecting  Lake  Erie  with  the  Ohio,  and  Lake 
Michigan  with  the  Illinois  River,  but  the  numerous  railway  lines 
have  now  taken  the  place  of  these  canals,  and  they  are  but  little 
used.  The  most  important  cities  and  towns  are  on  the  banks  of 
the  rivers  or  where  a  number  of  railways  meet  Some  of  these 
railway  centers,  like  Indianapolis,  Springfield  and  Topeka,  are 
prairie  towns.     Chicago  is  a  combined  lakeport  and  railway  center. 

The  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  touches  the  prairie  region  on 
the  north,  and  blends  with  it  so  gradually  that  it  is  difficult  to  find 
the  dividing  line.  Thence  it  extends  northward  into  Canada. 
The  land  bordering  on  the  lakes  and  between  them  is  more  rolling 
than  the  prairies,  and  the  northern  portion  was  originally  covered 
with  dense  forests.  The  lumber  in  many  places  has  been  cut  off, 
but  sufficiently  large  tracts  of  woodland  still  remain  to  admit  of 
a  thriving  lumber  trade  in  northern  portions  of  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin. The  even  climate  of  this  region,  resulting  from  the 
presence  of  such  large  bodies  of  water,  makes  Michigan  an  excel- 
lent fruit-growing  state,  and  large  crops  of  peaches,  apples  and 
small  fruits  are  produced.  Wisconsin  \s  valuable  for  the  growth 
of  cereals  and  livestock,  and  also  for  its  dairy  products. 

The  mineral  resources  of  upper  Michigan,  and  that  portion  of 
Minnesota  bordering  on  Lake  Superior,  make  this  region  one  of  the 
greatest  copper  and  iron-ore  producing  sections  of  the  world.  The 
lake  traffic  is  extensive,  and  many  of  the  towns  that  were  first 
started  at  convenient  shipping  points  have  grown  into  important 
cities  that  are  now  manufacturing  as  well  as  distributing  centers; 
but  their  influence  is  of  such  importance  as  to  deserve  special 
notice  in  another  chapter. 

These  include  the  western  piedmont  region,  or 
Great  Plains     foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.     They  slope 

from   the   mountains   as    great   rolling    lands    extending   to   about 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  39 

the  100th  meridian,  where  there  is  a  fall-line  similar  to  that  on  the 
Atlantic  Slope  of  the  Appalachians,  but  it  is  not  as  distinctly 
marked.  Northward  the  region  extends  far  beyond  the  boundary 
of  Canada,  and  southward  as  far  as  the  Plains  of  Texas.  The 
rivers  have  formed  many  bluff-like  valleys,  as  they  have  cut  their 
way  down  the  slope  to  join  the  Mississippi  or  its  tributaries.  The 
rainfall  is  not  sufficient  to  admit  of  raising  crops,  and  tilling  the 
soil  is  confined  to  the  land  bordering  the  streams  and  to  those 
sections  where  irrigation  can  he  practised.  Most  of  this  region  is 
♦riven  over  to  grazing,  and  the  raising  of  livestock  i.^  its  principal 
industry.  From  here  thousands  of  cattle  are  shipped  annually  to 
the  stockyards  in  Omaha,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City  and  Chicago. 

The   Great  Plains  terminate   on  the 

Rocky  Mountain  Plateau  +  •         ,  4        , 

J  west  in  a  plateau  having  an  average 

elevation    of   5000    feet.       Upon    this    as    a    foundation    rise     the 

numerous  ranges  that  constitute  the  Rocky  Mountains.      Most    of 

these   ranges  extend    from    the    northwest   to  the  southeast.      The 

plateau  from  which  they  rise  attains  its  greatest  breadth  on  the 

line  that  forms  the  boundary  between  Colorado  and  Wyoming,  and 

its  western  slope  is  much  more  rapid  than  the  eastern.      A  number 

of  other  mountain  ranges  extend  across  this  plateau   from  east   to 

west,   and    divide    it   into   well    defined    regions;    the    Columbian 

Plateau,  the  Colorado  Plateau  and  the  Great  Basin. 

The  Columbian  Plateau  includes  most  of  Idaho,  Washington 
and  Oregon.  With  the  exception  of  the  eastern  portion  the  region 
is  well  watered,  and  in  some  localities  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Coast  Range  the  rainfall  exceeds  sixty  inches.  Here  the  mountains 
are  clothed  with  heavy  forests,  and  over  nearly  the  entire  region 
the  valleys  contain  fertile  soil  and  afford  excellent  opportunities 
for  agriculture. 

The  Colorado  Plateau  includes  a  small  corner  of  Nevada,  mosl 
of  Colorado,  a  portion  of  Utah,  Arizona,   New  Mexico  and  South- 


40  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

ern  California.  The  entire  region  is  arid  or  semi-arid.  It  con- 
tains many  lofty  peaks,  deep  gorges  and  rapid  streams  fed  by 
melting  snows.  In  portions  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  irrigation 
is  practised  and  abundant  crops  are  raised  on  small  areas.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and,  with  sufficient  rainfall,  this  plateau  would 
become  one  of  the  most  productive  regions  of  the  country.  The 
mountains  abound  in  ore,  and  mining  is  an  important  industry  of 
the  region.  The  Colorado  is  the  only  river  that  has  broken 
through  the  barriers  of  this  basin  to  reach  the  ocean.  Along  its 
course  are  found  those  wonderful  canyons  which  form  some  of  the 
grandest  scenery  in  the  world. 

South  of  the  Columbian  Plateau  and  west  of  the  Colorado 
Plateau  is  an  extensive  region  known  as  the  Great  Basin,  because 
its  rivers  nowhere  drain  out  to  the  ocean.  The  Basin  is  a  high 
plateau  surrounded  by  mountains,  and  having  a  rough,  uneven  sur- 
face. It  includes  nearly  all  of  Nevada  and  Utah,  and  a  portion  of 
Oregon  and  California.  The  Great  Salt  Lake  fills  a  depression  in 
its  northeast  corner,  and  near  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California  is 
Death  Valley,  a  remarkable  depression  which  drops  300  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  great  altitude  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  gives  it  a 
cool  climate  throughout  the  year,  but  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient 
for  agricultural  purposes.  In  most  of  the  valleys  the  soil  is  fertile, 
and  where  irrigation  can  be  practised  bountiful  crops  are  raised, 
as  in  Utah,  some  portions  of  Colorado  and  the  southern  part  of 
California.  Several  valleys  contain  pine  forests  and  the  surface  of 
the  open  land  is  covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  grass.  These  are 
good  grazing  regions,  and,  were  markets  accessible,  might  also  be 
used  for  raising  crops.  Some  of  these  valleys,  like  the  Yellow- 
stone and  the  Yosemite,  have  been  reserved  as  national  parks. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  transverse  valleys,  or  mountain  passes, 
through  which  the  transcontinental  railroads  have  found  their  way 


COMMEKOE    AND    INDUSTRY  41 

to  the  Pacific  coast.  With  the  exception  of  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
all  of  these  lines  are  within  the  United  States. 

The  great  wealth  of  this  highland  region  lies  in  its  mineral 
resources,  of  which  gold,  silver  and  copper  are  the  most  import- 
ant. Since  1880,  the  gold  and  silver  taken  from  these  regions 
have  amounted  to  more  than  $4,000,000,000,  and  the  average 
annual  output  still  exceeds  $127,000,000.  The  location  of  the 
best  of  these  mines  has  caused  towns  to  spring  up  in  their  vicinity, 
some  of  which,  like  Leadville  and  Virginia  City,  for  the  time, 
became  important  industrial  centers.  Coal  measures  also  extend 
along  the  eastern  border  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  they  are 
still  awaiting  development.  At  no  distant  future,  however,  they 
will  be  the  means  of  locating,  in  this  region,  numerous  iron  and 
steel  mills  and  other  industries. 

West    of  the    Rocky    Mountains,  and   sep- 
The  Pacific  Slope     arated  from  them  ,)y  thp  Columbian  p|ateau 

and  the  Great  Basin,  we  find  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade 
Mountains  —  two  of  the  loftiest  ranges  on  the  continent.  Many 
of  their  peaks  attain  an  altitude  of  12,000  to  15,000  feet, 
and  are  covered  with  snow  throughout  the  year.  Between  these 
mountains  and  the  sea  are  the  parallel  Coast  Ranges.  The  inter- 
vening valleys  constitute  some  of  the  most  fertile  farming  countrv 
in  the  world.  The  most  important  of  these  are  the  Sacramento 
and  the  San  Joaquin  basins,  which  extend  into  the  southern  pari 
of  California;  others  extend  northward  into  Oregon.  Several 
streams  have  cut  their  way  through  these  coast  ranges  to  the 
Pacific,  the  most  important  being  the  Columbia. 

The  western  slope  of  these  mountains  is  well  watered,  except 
in  the  south,  and  their  sides  are  heavily  timbered  from  far  in  the 
north  to  the  dry  region  of  southern  California.  In  Oregon  and 
Washington  a  thriving  lumber  business  is  carried  on  in  the  moun- 
tain regions,  while  the  fertile  soil  of  the  valleys  produces  abundant 


-— JtWr  gEKS^^^ 

BiSa-.- 

COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  43 

crops  of  wheat,  oats,  corn  and  fruit.  The  valleys  of  California, 
in  the  northern  and  central  portions  of  the  state,  grow  excellent 
cereals  and  deciduous  fruits;  while'  the  southern  portion  has 
become  the  most  important  fruit  region  of  the  country.  Most  of 
the  farms  in  Southern  California  are  watered  by  irrigation. 

It  was  in  one  of  these  valleys  in  Central  California  that  gold 
was  discovered  in  1848,  and  this  discovery  caused  such  a  Hood  of 
immigration  that  California  became  a  state  in  1850,  some  years 
before  the  vast  territory  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains  was  even  open  to  settlement.  Since  the  discovery  of 
gold  within  her  borders,  California  has  been  one  of  the  leading 
gold-producing  regions  of  the  world. 

The  Pacific  coast  line  is  much  more  regular  than  the  Atlantic. 
San  Francisco  Bay  and  Puget  Sound  are  the  best  harbors.  On 
the  first  we  find  San  Francisco,  which  is  the  commercial  ami  finan- 
cial center  of  the  Pacific  States,  while  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and  Port- 
land are  important  ports  on  the  Sound  and  the  Columbia  River. 
San  Pedro,  in  the  southern  part  of  California,  is  in  the  midst  of 
the  fruit  region,  and  is  the  seaport  for  Los  Angeles.  San  Fran- 
cisco and  the  more  northern  ports  have  lines  of  steamers  plying 
between  them  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Australia,  the  Philippines 
and  the  leading  ports  of  China  and  Japan.  Steamers  also  ply 
between  San  Francisco  and  other  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States 
and  South  America. 

The  latitude  of  the  United  States  is  such  as  to  give 
CLIMATE     +1  .  ..      ,  .     ,  .         ; 

the  country  a  climate  ranging  in  temperature  Irom 

semi-tropical  in  the  extreme  south  to  cool  temperate  in  the  north. 
East  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Highlands  the  temperature  is  affected 
but  little  by  the  altitude  of  the  country,  the  low  ranges  of  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  having  only  a  local  influence.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  mountain  ranges  allows  north  and  south  winds 
alternately  to   sweep   over  the  vast    interior,   which   subjects  this. 


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1 



COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  4.-, 

region  to  sudden  and  sometimes  extreme  changes  in  temperature 
during  the  spring  and  autumn  months.  In  the  northern  half  of 
the  country  the  winters  are  cold  and  the  summers  hot. 

The  great  altitude  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau  gives  to  the 
entire  western  highland  region  a  cooler  climate  than  it  would 
otherwise  have.  The  Pacific  Slope  is  influenced  by  the  warm 
winds  blowing  over  the  Pacific,  and  has  a  warmer  climate  than 
places  of  corresponding  latitude  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  This  region 
also  differs  from  other  portions  of  the  country  in  having  only  two 
seasons,  rainy  and  dry. 

The  eastern  half  of  the  country  has,  without  excep- 
tion, an  annual  rainfall  of  more  than  twenty  inches, 
and  the  precipitation  is  quite  evenly  distributed  throughout  the 
year.  Both  of  these  conditions  are  of  great  advantage  to  a<rricul- 
ture.  A  glance  at  the  map  shows  that  the  Appalachian  Highlands 
and  Coastal  Plain  receive  an  average  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  inches 
of  rain,  while  two  small  areas,  one  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
other  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee, 
have  more  than  sixty  inches.  The  100th  meridian  separates  that 
portion  of  the  Mississippi  basin,  which  is  suitable  for  agriculture, 
from  the  western  portion  which,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  rainfall, 
is  suitable  for  grazing  only.  A  few  narrow  valleys  among  the 
Rocky  Mountains  receive  a  good  supply  of  rain,  but  most  of  this 
region  is  dry  because  the  altitude  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cas- 
cade Ranges  is  such  that  air  currents  on  the  eastern  slope  are 
given  a  downward  direction  and  are  constantly  growing  warmer 
and  having  their  capacity  for  moisture  increased  by  dry  winds 
blowing  inland.  The  western  slopes  of  these  mountains  and  the 
intervening  valleys  are  well  watered  because  the  incoming  winds 
from  the  ocean  are  forced  to  rise  over  the  mountains,  and,  being 
cooled,  they  precipitate  their  moisture,  consequently,  a  section 
along  the  coast  in  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Northern  California 


46  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

receives  more  than  sixty  inches  of  rain  annually.  In  general,  the 
rainfall  on  the  Pacific  coast  diminishes  from  Washington  south- 
ward, and  the  southern  part  of  California  falls  within  the  arid 
region.  Here  intensive  farming  is  successfully  followed  by  means 
of  irrigation. 

This  diversity  of  surface,  soil,  temperature,  and  rainfall, 
divides  the  United  States  naturally  into  well  defined  industrial 
regions,  and  the  leading  occupations  in  each  have  been  determined 
by  geographical  conditions. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  advantages  do  the  United  States  derive  from  their  geographi- 
cal position  ?     Are  any  other  countries  similarly  situated  ? 

How  do  you  account  for  the  numerous  good  harbors  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  ? 

What  is  the  fall-line?     Account  for  its  location. 

What  portions  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands  are  best  suited  to 
agriculture?     Why? 

Over  what  routes  did  the  people  who  first  settled  Ohio,  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  cross  the  mountains? 

What  are  the  boundaries  of  the  prairie  region  in  the  United  States? 
Why  is  this  region  so  well  adapted  to  agriculture? 

Why  are  not  the  Great  Plains  as  well  suited  to  agriculture  as  the 
prairies  ? 

Describe  the  climate  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  How  do  you 
account  for  it? 

How  do  you  account  for  the  heavy  rainfall  in  some  portions  of  Wash- 
ington, Oregon  and  in  the  northern  part  of  California? 


Chapter  II. 
win;  AT. 

Wheat  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  cereals  and  has  been  known 
from  the  earliest  history.  It  was  extensively  cultivated  by  the 
Ancient  Egyptians,  and  China  knew  it  and  used  it  more  than  2000 
years  B.  C.  It  also  constituted  an  important  article  of  food  of 
other  nations  of  antiquity.  From  that  time  to  the  present,  wheat 
has  been  the  principal  food  for  civilized  peoples.  Its  origin  is  not 
known,  but  its  home  is  supposed  to  have  been  somewhere  in 
Western  Asia. 

Wheat  is  adapted  to  a  great  variety  of  soils  and 

climates,  but  thrives  best  in  a  soil  formed  from 

PLANT 

the  decomposition  of  different  kinds  of  rock  that 

have  been  thoroughly  pulverized  and  contain  a  good  amount  of 
humus,  or  vegetable  mold.  Such  soil  is  usually  found  in  liver 
basins,  the  beds  of  old  lakes,  and  occasionally  on  the  lower  slopes 
in  hilly  regions.  The  plant  requires  a  medium  amount  of  rainfall, 
and  the  great  wheat-growing  regions  are  those  that  have  from 
twenty  to  forty  inches  of  rain  annually,  about  thirty  inches  secur- 
ing the  best  results,  provided  the  rain  falls  so  as  to  supply  the  crop 
with  water  during  the  growing  season.  The  plant  should  also 
secure  its  growth  during  cool  weather  either  in  early  spring  or  late 
fall.  Wherever  these  conditions  of  soil,  rainfall  and  temperature 
exist,  wheat  can  be  successfully  grown.  These  conditions  are  so 
varied  over  the  wide  range  in  which  the  plant  is  cultivated  that  a 
great  many  varieties  have  been  produced,  but  these  can  all  be 
grouped  under  two  classes,  winter  wheat  and  spring  wheat. 

47 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  [<j 

Winter  wheat  is  so  called   because   it    is  sown 

Winter  Wheat 

in    the    autumn    and    remains    in    the    ground 

until  the  next  season.  The  time  for  sowing  ranges  from  early  in 
September  to  late  in  October,  according  to  the  locality  and  climatic 
conditions.  In  the  warm  portions  of  the  wheat  regions  it  is  -own 
earlier  than  in  the  cooler  portions.  Winter  wheat  nets  a  good 
start  in  the  fall  months  and  matures  in  June  or  early  in  July  of 
the  following  season.  It  is  well  suited  to  those  localities  that  have 
a  dry  hot  summer,  as  the  conditions  of  climate  necessary  to  its 
successful  growth  and  maturity  are  met  by  sowing  in  the  fall. 
Winter  wheat  i-  generally  sown  in  the  warm  poll  ions  of  the  wheat 
belt,  both  in  the  United  States  and  other  countries.  It  yields 
well,  and  makes  a  good  grade  of  Hour. 

Spring  wheat  matures  in  less  time  than   winter 
Prin£  wheat,  and  can  be  sown  in  the  spring  and  har- 

vested in  the  following  July  or  August,  except  in  the  coolest  por- 
tions of  the  spring  wheat  belt,  where  it  does  not  reach  maturity 
until  the  first  of  September.  It  is  sown  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
the  ground  can  be  worked,  and  attains  most  of  its  growth  during 
the  hottest  part  of  the  season,  maturing  during  the  later  summer 
months.  There  are  numerous  varieties  of  spring  wheat,  such  as 
the  red  and  the  white,  and  the  small  berry  and  the  large  berry.  In 
general,  it  furnishes  a  harder  berry  than  winter  wheat,  and  makes 
a  Hour  of  better  quality.  This  wheat  is  adapted  to  the  cool  tem- 
perate regions,  and  can  be  grown  successfully  as  far  north  as 
Hudson's  Bay. 

The  great  wheat   countries   of  the   world  are   the 
United    States,    Russia,   Argentina,   France    and 
COUNTRIES        Germany.     Austria,  India  and   Egypt   also   pro- 
duce   considerable    quantities.      Russia    and    India    are    the    only 
foreign     countries    that    raise    enough     for    their    own    consump- 
tion and  both  of  these  export  small  quantities.      The  opening  of 


COMMERCE    AMI    INIHSTkV 


51 


THE  UNITED 
STATES 


Siberia  will,  in  the  near  future,  undoubtedly  increase  the  Russian 
wheat  fields,  and  consequently  thai  country's  production. 

Wheat  culture  in  the  United  Stale-  began  with 
the  earliest  colonization.  This  cereal  early 
became  the  staple  of  the  New  England  and 
Southern  colonists,  and  it  was  successfully  grown  by  the  French 
in  the  Mississippi  valley  many  years  before  the  war  which  gave  that 
region  to  the  English.      Wheat  culture  in  this  country  has  always 

followed  the  tide  of  immigration^ 
until  now  the  grain  is  raised  in 
forty-three  states  and  territories. 
In  twenty-five  of  these  winter 
wheat  is  grown,  and  in  nineteen 
spring  wheat,  while  some  pro- 
duce both  varieties.  The  condi- 
tions favorable  to  the  production 
of  wheat  in  the  United  States 
are  found  in  the  entire  basin  of 
the  Red  River  of  the  North  ;  the  upper  portion  of  the  Mississippi 
basin  as  far  south  as  the  Des  Moines  River  in  Iowa,  the  Illinois 
River  in  Illinois,  the  flood  plains  of  the  Arkansas,  and  rivers  of 
Kansas  and  Oklahoma  ;  in  Indiana  as  far  south  as  the  Wabash  ;  all 
along  the  Lake  Erie  slope  of  Ohio  and  Xew  York,  and  in  the 
Columbian  Plateau  and  Sacramento  basin  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  basin  of  the  Red  River,  and  that 
The  Spring  Wheat  Belt  .  ■        ,. .,     ,..    .    .     •  i  ,•  . 

*       &  portion  of  the  Mississippi  basin  as  lar 

south  as  the  Des  Moines,  constitute  the  spring  wheat  region. 
Here  the  winter  is  long,  the  spring  late  and  the  summer  short. 
Wheat  planted  in  the  spring  has  opportunity  to  attain  it>  growth 
before  the  hotter  weather  sets  in.  The  period  in  which  it  ripens 
is  usually  free  from  rain,  which  assures  the  gradual  maturing  that 
secures  the  excellent  grade  of  wheal  for  which  the  region  is  noted. 


India 

Austria 

1  ImiL-iny 

France 

Russsia 

United  st.-iti  a 

52 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


The  most  important  wheat  region  of  the 
The  Red  River  Basin     United  gtates  and  of  the  world  is  in 

the  basin  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North.  Here  are  found  those 
extensive  wheat  farms  containing  from  25,000  to  30,000  acres  or 
more,  and  here  is  raised  the  best  quality  of  spring  wheat. 


WHEAT  HEADER  AND  THRASHER 

These  farms  are  divided  into  sections,  each  of  which  has  its 
group  of  buildings,  teams  and  farm  machinery,  and  is  in  charge  of 
a  foreman.  The  ground  is  plowed  with  sulky  plows  which  turn 
two  or  more  furrows  at  a  time.  The  motor  power  is  usually 
horses  or  mules.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  use  traction 
engines,  but  these  are  not  generally  satisfactory.  The  plowing  is 
done  in  the  fall,  and  the  seed  is  sown  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 
thawing  of  the  ground  will  permit.  This  work  is  done  by  seeders 
which  plant  the  seed  and  cover  it  at  the  same  time.     Harvesting 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY  53 

takes  place  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the  tenth  of  September, 
according  to  locality.  The  grain  is  cut  and  hound  by  self-binding 
harvesters.  As  harvesting  must  he  accomplished  within  a  short 
time  after  the  grain  is  ripe,  and  a  harvester  can  harvest  only 
about  ten  acres  a  day,  each  farm  requires  a  number  of  these 
machines.  Many  of  these  harvesters  carry  the  sheaves  until  a 
number  are  collected,  when  they  are  dropped.  Workmen  follow 
the  binders  and  stand  the  bundles  in  groups  called  stooks,  or 
shocks,  so  that  they  will  dry  as  soon  as  possible.  In  some  sections 
the  wheat  is  stacked  before  thrashing,  but  in  most  cases  it  goes 
directly  from  the  stook  to  the  thrasher. 

As  soon  as  the  wheat  is  dry,  it  is  thrashed.  This  work  is 
done  by  steam  thrashers  which  clean  the  grain,  and  with  but  little 
assistance  stack  the  straw.  The  machines  arc  driven  by  twelve- 
horse  power  engines,  and  will  thrash  from  1200  to  1500  bushels  In 
a  day.  As  the  grain  comes  from  the  thrasher  it  is  hauled  to  the 
granaries,  or  if  sold,  to  the  nearest  elevator. 

Instead  of  marketing  his  wheat  at  the  time  of  thrashing,  a 
farmer  may  hold  it  until  late  in  the  season.  If  the  price  is  good, 
it  is  to  his  advantage  to  market  it  at  once.  In  either  case  it  is 
shipped  from  the  local  elevator  to  some  of  the  large  wheat 
centers.  The  most  important  of  these  are  Minneapolis,  Duluth, 
Chicago  and  Butfalo.  In  these  cities  are  found  elevators  capable 
of  containing  from  500,000  to  1,000,000  bushels  of  grain  each. 
These  are  used  for  storing  the  wheat  until  it  goes  to  the  mills. 
Some  of  these  large  elevators  are  made  of  wood,  but  the  later 
patterns  are  of  steel,  tile,  or  concrete,  and  are  in  the  shape  of 
huge  tanks.  (See  Frontispiece.)  The  elevators  contain  the 
most  ingenious  labor-saving  devices  for  the  handling  of  the  grain  : 
the  labor  expended  upon  it  being  confined  to  operating  the 
machinery. 

This  is  well  illustrated  by  an  elevator  at  West  Superior,  Wis. 


54  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

This  building  is  230  feet  high,  and  135  feet  wide,  and  is  built 
entirely  of  steel.  It  cost  over  two  million  dollars,  and  will  con- 
tain more  than  three  million  bushels  of  wheat.  The  machinery  is 
such  that  with  the  labor  of  a  few  men,  600  cars  of  grain  can  be 
unloaded  in  a  day.  This  means  the  handling  of  400,000  bushels. 
As  the  wheat  leaves  the  car,  it  is  dropped  into  the  basement 
where  it  is  caught  up  by  a  series  of  buckets  on  an  endless  chain 
and  carried  to  the  top  of  the  building,  and  put  into  bins  which 
hold  from  7500  to  15,000  bushels.  Before  being  placed  in  the 
bins  the  wheat  is  weighed  so  that  the  exact  amount  is  known. 
From  the  bins  it  is  loaded  directly  into  boats  for  shipment  to  Buffalo. 

This    includes  that    portion  of  Iowa 

The  Winter  Wheat  Belt  ,u   e±u  t-»     »*■  •       r>-  i  *i 

south  of  the  Des  Moines  River,  and  the 

wheat  growing  portion  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Oklahoma,  Indiana, 
Illinois  and  Ohio.  The  climatic  conditions  here  are  quite  different 
from  those  in  the  spring  wheat  belt.  The  summers  are  long  and 
hot,  and  the  winters  mild.  If  wheat  were  planted  in  the  spring,  it 
would  grow  during  the  hot  weather  of  June  and  July,  and  the 
plant  would  produce  a  large  quantity  of  straw  and  very  little  grain 
and  that  of  poor  quality.  Many  of  the  wheat  farms  of  Kansas  are 
large,  and  in  some  years  that  state  has  even  led  North  Dakota  and 
Minnesota  in  her  production  of  wheat.  Each  of  the  other  states 
also  produce  several  million  bushels.  In  Illinois  and  Indiana  the 
farms  are  smaller,  and  in  Ohio  the  cultivation  is  on  small  farms, 
largely  on  the  plan  of  intensive  farming,  which  secures  a  large 
yield  per  acre.  Considerable  wheat  is  also  grown  in  western  New 
York  on  the  same  plan. 

On  account  of  the  peculiar  climatic  condi- 

The  Pacific  States     .-  c  n  rr  r\  i  w    u- 

tions  of  California,  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton, this  region  furnishes  a  grade  of  wheat  of  high  quality,  but 
somewhat  different  from  that  grown  in  other  portions  of  the 
country.     Most  of  this  is   winter  wheat,   but  on  account  of  the 


COMMEROK    AND    [NDUSTRY  55 

dryness  of  the  climate  the  berry  becomes  nearly  as  hard  as  thai  of 

some  spring  varieties.     The  harvesting  here  is  somewhat   different 

from  that  in  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North.     The  main 

becomes   thoroughly  dry   before  cutting,  and    in   many  places  the 

harvester  used   cuts   only  enough   of  the    straw    to   secure    all  the 

heads.     The    thrasher   is   attached    to   the    harvester,   so   that    the 

harvesting  and  thrashing   are   done   at   the   same   time  and   by   the 

same   piece  of  machinery.      One   of  these   machines   requires   from 

twenty   to    twenty-four    horses    to    operate   it   successfully.      The 

grain  from  this   region  is  all   sacked   before   shipping,  and  this  has 

given    rise   to  a  thriving    industry   in  the    manufacture    of   gunny 

sacks.      Most    of  this   wheat   is    ground    in    the    states    where   it  is 

grown,  and  the  flour  is  exported  to  China  and  Japan. 

Wheat    is   transported  by   rail  and   by   water. 
Transportation     Wjth   the   exception    of  that   on    the   p:lcjnc 

coast,  it  is  carried  in  bulk,  being  run  directly  from  the  elevators 
into  the  car  or  ship,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  average  freight  car 
will  contain  675  bushels,  and  the  task  of  moving  a  large  crop  taxes 
the  railways  to  their  utmost  capacity.  Transportation  by  water  is 
much  cheaper  than  by  rail,  consequently,  much  of  the  wheat 
destined  for  European  markets  is  shipped  to  Duluth  or  Chicago, 
and  thence  by  water  to  Buffalo  where  it  can  be  reloaded  into  canal 
boats  and  carried  to  New  York  via  the  Erie  (anal  and  Hudson 
River.  Many  of  the  steamships  on  the  Great  Lakes  can  carry 
cargoes  of  more  than  250,000  bushels. 

The   wheat    berry,  or    the    kernel,   as   it    is   commonh 

FLOUR 

called,  has  a  somewhat  complex  structure.       If  a  kernel 

is  carefully  split  through  the  middle,  and  the  exposed  surface 
examined  by  a  powerful  microscope,  we  find  that  the  inside  of  the 
berry  is  tilled  with  white  granules  of  almost  pure  starch.  Sur- 
rounding this  is  a  coating  which  has  a  yellowish  tint.  This 
coating  is  nearly  all  gluten,  the  most  nourishing  and  valuable  part 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


57 


of  the  berry.  Outside  of  the  gluten  is  :i  covering  of  bran.  This 
is  arranged  in  five  coats,  each  differing  from  the  other  in  structure 
and  appearance,  but  all  are  made  up  of  wood  fiber,  wholly  worthless 
as  an  article  of  food.  At  the  one  end  of  the  berry,  and  within  the 
bran  coats,  we  find  the  germ,  which  must  be  separated  from  the 
other  parts  in  order  to  obtain  Hour  of  the  best  quality. 


GRINDING    ROOM    IN    A   KLOUK  Mil. I. 


The  milling  of  wheat  has  for  its  purpose  the  crush- 
*  ing  of  the  berry  and  converting  the  starch  and  gluten 
into  flour.  When  the  wheat  enters  the  mill,  it  is  first  cleaned, 
during  which  process  all  imperfect  kernels  and  seeds  of  other 
plants  are  removed.  The  dust  is  then  removed  by  running  the 
wheat  through  a  series  of  rapidly  revolving  brushes,  through  which 
is  passed  a  blast  of  air.     In  some  of  the   best  mills  the  wheat    is 


58 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


steamed  a  short  time  before  grinding.  This  prevents  the  bran 
from  breaking  into  such  small  particles  that,  when  ground,  it  can- 
not be  separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  berry. 


PACKING  ROOM  IN  A  LARGE  FLOUR  MILL 


The  wheat  is  ground  by  passing  through  series  of  steel  rollers, 
those  in  each  set  being  closer  together  than  in  the  one  preceding. 
After  being  thoroughly  ground  in  this  manner,  it  passes  through 
the  separators  which  remove  the  bran  and  the  germ.  Several 
grindings  and  sittings  still  follow  before  the  flour  is  perfected.  It 
is  then  exposed  to  a  blast  of  air  to  cool  it,  when  it  is  ready  to  be 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


59 


United  States 


packed  for  shipment.  Flour  is  packed  in  barrels  and  sacks.  A 
barrel  of  flour  weighs  196  pounds  ;  the  sacks  are  of  half-barrel, 
quarter-barrel,  and  eighth-barrel  sizes.  It  usually  requires  four 
and  a  half  bushels  of  wheat  to  make  a  barrel  of  flour. 

The  large  milling  centers  are  naturally  near  or  at  the  large 
shipping  centers,  but  we  find  small  mills  located  all  over  the  wheat 
belt.  To  these  mills  many  farmers  sell  their  wheat,  and  from 
them  flour  is  sent,  not  only  to  supply  the  local  trade,  but  to  many 
distant  cities  and  states,  and  sometimes  to  foreign  countries.  The 
capacity  of  these  small  mills  ranges  all  the  way  from  100  to  1000 

barrels  a  day.  Minneapolis 
is  the  greatest  milling  center 
of  the  world.  In  this  city  are 
found  single  mills  capable  of 
producing  15,000  or  more 
barrels  of  flour  in  24  hours, 
and  the  full  capacity  of  this 
milling  center  is  more  than 
60,000  barrels  a  day. 

The  United  States  is  the 
WHKAT  leading  wheat-producing  coun- 

try o\'  the  world.  It  now 
raises  one-fifth  of  the  world's  supply,  and  the  tendency  is  to 
increase  rather  than  to  diminish  this  output.  Our  position  as  a 
wheat  country  is  due,  not  only  to  the  vast  extent  of  our  wheat 
lands,  but  to  the  ingenuity  of  American  inventors  in  producing, 
and  the  intelligence  of  the  American  farmers  in  using,  our  agri- 
cultural machinery,  without  which  the  cultivation  of  the  great 
farms  would  be  an  impossibility.  The  only  other  country  that 
approaches  the  United  States  in  this  respect  is  Canada,  where 
we  find  the  same  thrift,  energy,  and  intelligence  as  in  the  United 
States.     Our  annual    production   of  wheat   is   about    720,000,000 


Rest  of  the  World 


fiO  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

bushels.  We  export  annually  about  155,000,000  bushels,  and 
about  18,000,000  barrels  of  flour.  The  leading  countries  in 
this  trade  are  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  British  North 
America,  Africa  and  France  ;  while  the  largest  purchasers  of  flour 
are  the  United  Kingdom,  Holland,  China,  Cuba  and  the  West 
Indies.  Small  quantities  also  go  to  Brazil,  Japan  and  Africa. 
The  average  consumption  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  is  about 
four  and  a  half  bushels  for  each  individual,  and  it  requires  about 
two  square  feet  of  land  to  raise  enough  wheat  to  make  a  loaf  of 
bread  weighing  a  pound. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  are  cereals?     Why  are  they  so  called? 

Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  are  the  great  wheat  countries  of 
t&e  world  situated? 

Is  wheat  raised  in  your  vicinity?     If  so,  is  it  spring  or  winter  wheat? 

What  inventions  have  contributed  to  make  the  United  States  the 
greatest  wheat-producing  country  in  the  world  ? 

Why  is  wheat  such  a  valuable  article  of  food? 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  uses  of  wheat? 


Chapter  III. 
CORN. 

In  its  broadest  meaning  the  word  corn  applies  to  all  cereal 
grains.  The  Scotch  call  oats  corn  ;  to  the  Englishman  an  ear  of 
corn  signifies  a  head  of  wheat;  while  in  some  of  the  countries  of 
Northern  Europe,  rice  and  corn  mean  the  same  thing.  But  in  the 
United  States  the  word  means  Indian  corn,  or  maize. 

Corn    is    the    cereal    of    the    New    World.       When 

HISTORY 

America    was    discovered,   the    natives    were    found 

using  various   preparations   of  this  grain,   and   it  was   from   this 

beginning  that  the  use  of  corn  was  extended  until   it  has  reached 

its  present  limit. 

Corn  was  originally  a  semi-tropical  plant,  but  the  rude  method 

of  cultivation  by  the  Indians  extended  its  area  as  far  north  as  New 

York  and  the  New  England  States,  and  now  by  far  the  greatest 

quantity  is  raised  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the  Old  and  New 

Worlds.     Besides    the    United    States,   we   find   the   countries    of 

Southern  Europe  and  India  now  raising  considerable  quantities  of 

corn,   and    its   cultivation  is    yearly   being  introduced   into  other 

countries. 

Corn  is  a  tender  plant,   and   at   an}'   period  of  its 

growth  it  is  easily  damaged  by  frosts.     The  seed 
PLANT  . 

cannot  be  planted  until   the  season  is  sufficiently 

far  advanced  to  allow  the  growing  corn  to  escape  late  frosts,  and 

the  region  in  which  it  is  grown  must  have  a  late  warm  autumn, 

almost  without  rainfall,  otherwise  the  grain   will  not  ripen.     Corn 

thrives  best  on  a  rich  loam,  and  most  of  it  is  raised  on  a  heavy 

clay  loam  composed  of  finely  ground  rock  from  which  the  plant 

61 


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COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  63 

food  has  not  been  washed.  The  plant  produces  most  abundantly 
where  the  rainfall  is  from  thirty  to  forty  inches,  falling  mainly  in 
spring  and  winter.  It  thrives  much  better  on  dry  land  than  on 
that  which  is  wet  or  abundantly  moist.  Since  the  plant  absorbs  a 
large  quantity  of  moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  it  often  thrives  in 
localities  where  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient  for  the  best  results  in 
raising  wheat,  oats  and  other  small  grain. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  corn,  each  of  which  seems  to  be 
suited  to  a  definite  purpose,  and  some  are  especially  adapted  to 
certain  localities.  The  small,  hard,  yellow  corn  will  mature  in  a 
shorter  season  than  some  of  the  larger  varieties,  and  can  be  suc- 
cessfully grown  in  New  England,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Wis- 
consin,  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas.  Sweet  corn  is  raised  for 
eating  green  and  for  canning,  while  popcorn  is  considered  some- 
thing of  a  luxury  and  is  not  raised  in  large  quantities,  although 
the  crop  when  successful  is  more  profitable  than  almost  any  other 
that  the  farmer  can  produce.  When  we  speak  of  corn  without  any 
qualification  of  the  term,  the  large  dent  corn  is  meant.  The 
quantity  of  this  variety  raised  in  the  United  States  exceeds  many 
times  that  of  all  others  combined. 

Tin?  rnow      Corn  is  grown  in  nearly  all  of  the  states  east  of  the 

Great  Plains,  and  in  many  of  them  a  sufficiently 
BELT 

large  yield  is  secured  to  make  the  crop  a  profitable 

one  ;  but  in  only  a  few  does  the  raising  of  corn  constitute  the  chief 

industry.     These  states  form  what  is  known  as  the  corn   belt,  and 

are  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio. 

Within  their  boundary  is  produced  nearly  nine-tenths  of  all  the 

corn  grown  in  the  United   States,  and  within  this  region   we  find 

the  conditions  essential  to  the  most  successful  cultivation  of  this 

grain.      It  will  be  noticed  that  a  number  of  these  states  also  belong 

to  the  wheat  belt. 

The  wheat  is  grown  mainly  along  the  Hood  plains  of  the  rivers 


64  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

and  in  old  lake  bottoms  where  the  soil  is  of  the  fine  silt  variety 
required  by  that  grain.  The  corn  occupies  most  of  the  land  in  this 
belt  which  is  higher  and  drier.  Therefore,  except  in  Kansas,  the 
wheat  production  in  these  states  is  very  small  compared  with  the 
corn  crop. 

We  do  not  find  in  the  corn  belt  any  such  large  farms 
liiage  as  ^e  jj0nanza  farms  of  the  wheat  region.  In  the 
eastern  states,  the  farms  are  small,  seldom  exceeding  240  acres. 
But  as  one  goes  westward,  he  finds  the  average  size  to  increase 
until  in  Western  Iowa,  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  400  or  more  acres 
may  be  included  in  a  farm.  There  are  a  few  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  where  a  syndicate,  or  some  enterprising  farmer,  has  pur- 
chased a  number  of  farms  and  operates  them  all  under  one  manage- 
ment. Much  that  has  been  said  about  the  treatment  of  land  in  the 
raising  of  wheat  applies  also  to  the  raising  of  corn.  The  land  is 
plowed  and  prepared  for  the  seed  in  about  the  same  way  for  both 
grains.  Corn,  however,  is  planted  in  rows  so  that  the  hills  are 
equally  far  apart  each  way.  One  looking  at  a  field  of  growing 
corn  early  in  the  season,  notices  that  the  rows  run  both  ways  and 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  that  they  are  about  three  feet 
apart.  When  the  corn  is  small  this  seems  to  be  a  waste  of  ground, 
but  by  the  middle  of  the  season  the  plants  have  become  so  large 
that  the  leaves  of  one  hill  touch  those  of  the  next. 

The  seed  is  usually  planted  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of 
May,  according  to  locality.  The  work  is  done  by  a  planter  drawn 
by  horses,  and  so  gauged  that  it  drops  the  seed  and  covers  it  at 
equal  intervals  of  space.  Guiding  his  machine  by  a  wire  stretched 
across  the  field,  a  careful  operator  will  succeed  in  planting  his 
field  so  regularly  that  the  rows  will  be  straight  in  each  direction. 
The  young  plants  are  very  tender,  and  when  they  have  attained 
the  height  of  five  or  six  inches  tillage  begins.  In  order  to  keep 
the  soil  loose  and  moist  about  the  roots,  and  to  keep  down  the 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  65 

weeds,  the  ground  must  be  cultivated  every  weak  or  two  until  the 
plants  become  so  large  that  the  cultivator  can  not  be  drawn  bet  ween 
the  rows  without  injuring  the  crop.  The  field  is  then  laid  by  for 
the  corn  to  fill  and  ripen.  In  respect  to  tillage  corn  presents  a 
marked  contrast  to  wheat  which  covers  the  ground  so  thickly  that 
cultivation  is  unnecessary. 

This  necessity  for  cultivating  the  land  makes  corn  a  more 
expensive  crop  to  raise  than  wheat.  In  good  soil  the  most  thrifty 
plants  attain  a  height  of  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet,  but  the 
average  height  is  from  seven  to  eight  feet.  Each  stalk  bears  sev- 
eral  ears.  The  yield  varies  from  thirty  or  forty  to  as  high  as 
eighty  bushels  per  acre,  though  the  hitter  result  is  seldom  attained. 
The  crop  is  usually  harvested  about  the  middle  of  September,  or 
it  may  remain  standing  longer  if  conditions  make  it  necessary. 

Formerly  the  harvesting  was  all  done  by  hand. 
°  Only  the  ears  were  collected  from  the  stalks  which 
were  left  standing,  but  now  the  corn  harvester  does  the  work  in  a 
manner  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  self-binder  employed  in  harvest- 
ing wheat.  The  bundles  of  corn  are  stacked  in  shocks  for  drying. 
Husking  is  commenced  at  the  earliest  possible  date.  Numerous 
machines  have  been  invented  for  doing  this  work,  but  until  recently 
they  have  not  proved  satisfactory,  and  most  of  the  husking  is  still 
done  by  hand.  This  task  is  of  such  magnitude  that  it  often  engages 
the  entire  population  for  several  weeks.  After  husking,  the  ears 
of  corn  are  stored  in  cribs,  which  are  large  sheds  having  their  sides 
made  of  narrow  strips  of  board  with  wide  openings  between  them, 
so  as  to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  air.  The  corn  remains  in  the 
cribs  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

While  not  as  valuable  as   wheat,  taken   bulk    for    bulk, 
USES 

corn  is  more  widely  used  because  it  is  more  suitable  for 

so  many  different  purposes.  Coin  is  very  wholesome  and  nutri- 
tious,  and   it  is  estimated   that   it    is  used  as  a   food   by   a    larger 


66  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

number  of  people  than  any  other  cereal  except  rice.  Its  most 
extensive  use,  however,  is  for  fattening  stock,  and  we  find  that  the 
states  in  which  the  corn  belt  is  located  supply  our  markets  with  a 
large  number  of  hogs  and  cattle.  In  many  cases  where  corn  is  fed 
to  stock,  it  is  not  husked. 

Corn  is  shelled  or  thrashed  by  machines  driven  by  steam- 
power.  The  largest  of  these  will  thrash  from  2500  to  4000 
bushels  in  a  day.  It  is  only  the  shelled  corn  that  is  shipped  from 
the  regions  in  which  it  is  grown.  This  constitutes  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  crop,  the  other  three-fourths  being  used  for  purposes 
already  stated. 

When  ground,  corn  produces  a  flour  commonly  known  as 
corn  meal,  from  which  numerous  articles  of  food  are  prepared. 
Another  very  extensive  use  of  corn  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
starch.  Nearly  all  the  starch  used  is  produced  from  this  grain, 
and  there  are  factories  in  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  and  on  Long  Island, 
which  manufacture  more  than  20,000,000  pounds  each  year. 
Another  useful  production  from  this  grain  is  glucose,  or  corn 
syrup,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  50,000,000  or  60,000,000 
bushels  are  used  yearly.  There  are  large  glucose  factories  in 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Shadyside,  N.  J.,  and  Peoria,  111.  Glucose  is 
extensively  used  in  canning  fruits,  for  diluting  syrups,  making 
candy,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  numerous  culinary  preparations. 
It  is  much  less  expensive  than  any  grade  of  syrup  that  can  be 
produced  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  consequently  it  replaces  that 
article  wTherever  its  use  will  not  injure  the  product.  An  equally 
large  amount  of  corn  is  also  used  each  year  in  the  manufacture  of 
whiskey  and  other  alcoholic  spirits.  The  most  extensive  industry 
of  this  sort  is  located  in  the  cities  of  Peoria  and  Pekin,  Illinois. 

In  addition  to  many  uses,  for  which  the  grain  itself  is  valu- 
able, we  find  numerous  uses  for  other  parts  of  the  plant.  The 
stalks  are  nutritious  and  form  a  valuable  fodder  for  cattle,  either 


COM  MERCK    AND    INDUSTRY 


United  States 


Rest  of  the  World 


after  the}'  become  dry  or  when  they  are  green.  In  fact,  the 
green  corn  in  the  form  of  fodder  constitutes  the  principal  feed  for 
cows  in  many  of  the  dairy  districts  of  the  country.  For  fodder, 
the  corn  is  planted  late  in  the  season,  and  the  crop  is  harvested 
while  the  stalks  are  green  aud  tender.  These  are  usually  cut  into 
small  pieces  and  packed  into  air-tight  compartments,  called  silos, 
from  which  the  feed  is  taken  as  needed  during  the  winter.  The 
pith  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  smokeless  powder  and  for  pack- 
ing under  the  armorplate  of 
warships.  When  wet,  the  fiber 
swells  rapidly,  and  in  ease  of 
injury  to  the  ship,  it  prevents 
leaking.  The  husks  are  em- 
ployed in  tin1  manufacture  of 
mattresses  and  for  making  some 
kinds  of  paper.  In  the  fruit 
regions  they  are  also  exten- 
COKN  sively  used    in    packing   fruit  ; 

and,  lastly,  in  those  portions 
of  the  corn  belt,  where  fuel  is  scarce,  the  cobs  are  very  generally 
used  for  this  purpose,  thus  leaving  no  part  of  the  plant  to  go  to 
waste. 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  corn-producing 
country,  raising  four-fifths  of  the  world's  crop, 
and  the  growing  of  corn  supports  a  larger  number  of  people  than 
any  other  industry  in  the  land.  The  annual  crop  amounts  to 
about  2,200,000,000  bushels,  and  has  an  average  value  of  over 
$700,000,000.  This  exceeds  the  value  of  the  wheat  and  cotton 
crops  combined,  which  are  our  two  next  largest  agricultural 
products.  Thus  we  see  that  corn  growing  is  our  most  important, 
as  well  as  our  most  valuable,  industry.  The  successful  raising  of 
this  grain  has  given  the  states  in  the  corn  belt  most  of  their  wealth 


PRODUCTION 


68 


COMMERCE  AND   INDUSTRY 


and  also  led  to  the  establishment,  within  their  borders,  of  many  of 
the  great  industries  now  found  there.  The  farmers  of  the  corn 
belt  are  invariably  prosperous,  and  most  of  them  have  acquired 
considerable  fortunes   by  their  industry.     The   people  of  foreign 


AN  OLD  STYLE  ELEVATOR 


countries  have  not  yet  learned  the  value  of  corn  to  any  great 
extent,  and  in  order  to  market  the  vast  crop  raised  in  the  country, 
the  farmers  have  to  convert  a  good  part  of  it  into  beef  and  pork. 

The  methods  described  for  the  marketing  and  transportation 
of  wheat  also  apply  to  corn  and  need  no  further  description. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  69 

The  other  cereals  forming  important  crops  in  the 
United  States  are  rice,  oats,  barley,  rye  and  buck- 
wheat. Rice  is  grown  in  the  South.  It  requires  a 
warm  climate  and  low  ground  that  can  be  flooded  after  planting. 
It  constitutes  one  of  the  most  valuable  food  plants  in  the  world, 
and  its  culture  is  rapidly  increasing  in  Louisiana.  Oats  grow 
farther  north  than  corn  or  winter  wheat,  but  thrive  well  in  regions 
where  spring  wheat  is  raised.  Barley  has  about  the  same  range  as 
wheat,  and  is  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  malt  liquors. 
Buckwheat  grows  rapidly  and  matures  early.  It  is  valuable  for 
fattening  hogs,  and  the  Hour  made  from  it  is  an  important  article 
of  food. 

QUESTIONS. 

Of  what  use  was  corn  to  the  Indians  before  they  became  acquainted 
with  the  white  men? 

How  did  the  corn  which  the  Indians  raised  compare  in  quality  and 
quantity  with  that  now  raised  in  the  best  portions  of  the  corn  belt?  How 
can  you  account  for  the  difference? 

Which  is  the  more  productive  plant,  wheat  or  corn?  Which  is  the 
more  useful? 

Why  is  wheat  so  much  more  extensively  used  in  Europe  than  corn? 

Name  the  most  important  purposes  for  which  corn  is  u^ed. 

What  other  cereals  besides  wheat  and  corn  constitute  important  crops 
in  the  United  States? 


Chapter  IV. 
LIVE  STOCK. 

The  raising  of  live  stock  is  a  valuable  and  important  industry, 
and  extends  over  nearly  the  entire  agricultural  portion  of  the 
country.  Cattle  are  raised  for  beef  and  dairy  products,  horses  for 
draft  and  driving,  sheep  for  wool  and  mutton  and  swine  for  pork. 
The  important  part  of  this  industry  naturally  centers  in  those 
regions  where  conditions  are  especially  adapted  to  its  success. 

The  principal  grazing  regions  are  found  in  the  western  portion 
of  the  Great  Plains,  including  most  of  Montana,  east  of  the  moun- 
tains, portions  of  Wyoming,  Nebraska,  Indian  Territory,  Okla- 
homa and  Texas.  The  region  is  semi-arid,  having  only  sufficient 
rainfall  to  produce  a  good  growth  of  grass.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate, and  remarkably  well  suited  to  stock  raising.  Late  in  the 
summer  the  grass  dries  and  may  be  harvested  and  stacked  like  hay 
in  other  regions,  or  left  standing  for  the  stock  to  feed  upon  during 
the  winter,  as  they  feed  upon  the  green  grass  in  spring  and 
summer.  The  grazing  region  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  rich 
agricultural  region  to  the  east,  and  to  which  many  of  the  cattle  are 
sent  for  fattening  before  being  marketed. 

Dairying  is  successful  only  in  those  regions  where 

DAIRYING  /     °        ,    ,,  ,,  -,  c, 

good  crops  ot  altalta  corn  and  grass  can  be  grown, 

since  the  cows  must  have  plenty  of  sweet,  juicy  feed  in  order  to 
produce  an  abundance  of  milk  of  good  quality.  The  best  dairy 
conditions  are  found  in  the  northern  states  bordering  on  the  Missis- 
sippi. Of  these  Iowa  takes  the  lead,  producing  a  larger  quantity 
of  dairy  products  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union.  Iowa  is  fol- 
lowed by  Wisconsin,  Minnesota  and  Illinois.      Good   dairy  farms 

71 


72 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


are  also  found  in  the  central  part  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  and  in 
the  northern  portion  of  Indiana,  in  Ohio  and  New  York.  In 
the  northern  New  England  States  dairy  husbandry  has  replaced 
the  general  farming  that  formerly  characterized  the  agriculture  of 
that  region.  The  United  States  contains  about  18,000,000 
milch  cows,  and  makes  about  1,400,000,000  pounds  of  butter,  and 
300,000,000  pounds  of  cheese  a  year. 

Most  of  the  butter  and  cheese  marketed  is  made  in  factories. 
The    butter    factories    are    usually    known    as    creameries.      Each 

cienmery  receives  the  milk  from 


United  States 


Rest  of  the  World 


the  cows  of  quite  a  large  re- 
gion, and  makes  butter  on  a 
large  scale.  The  cream  is  sep- 
arated from  the  milk  by  a 
machine  called  the  cream  sep- 
arator. The  separator  revolves 
at  a  very  high  speed,  and  since 
the  cream  is  lighter  than  the 
milk,  it  is  brought  to  the  top 
and  flows  out  through  a  tube, 
while  the  milk  flows  from  a  similar  tube  below.  When  in  opera- 
tion, a  stream  of  milk  flows  into  the  separator,  and  streams  of 
cream  and  skimmed  milk  flow  out.  Cheese  factories  also  receive 
the  milk  from  surrounding  dairies,  and  operate  on  a  large  scale. 
Nevertheless,  fully  one  half  of  the  butter  and  cheese  made  in  the 
country  is  made  on  small  farms  and  wholly  by  hand  labor.  Most 
of  this  is  consumed  where  it  is  made. 

Jerseys,  Holsteins  arid  Ayrshires  are  the  best  breeds  of  cattle 
for  dairy  purposes,  since  their  cows  yield  an  abundance  of  milk  of 
good  quality,  and  the  steers  are  easily  fattened  for  beef.  But 
while  these  steers  make  excellent  beef,  they  are  small  and  not  as 
profitable  for  marketing  as  those  of  the  larger  breeds. 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


73 


BEEF 


United  states 


The  total  value  of  the  dairy  products  is  about  $500,000,000, 
which  is  fomewhal  greater  than  the  value  of  the  wheat  crop. 
Ahout  one-third  of  this  is  exported  to  European  countries. 

Dairying  and  raising  cattle  for  market  are  two  distinct 
branches  of  the  live-stock  industry,  and  the  dairy  states 
are  not  noted  for  their  production  of  beef.  As  already  stated,  we 
find  most  of  the  cattle  raised  for  beef  grown  on  the  ranches  border- 
ing on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;  Montana,  Wyo- 
ming, Colorado  and  Texas  being  especially  noted  for  their  exten- 
sive grazing  territory.  The 
Shorthorns  or  Durhanis  are  the 
best  breed  for  beef.  They  are 
large,  fatten  easily  and  slaugh- 
ter with  but  little  waste.  But 
the  Here  fords  are  common  on 
the  large  ranches  because  they 
are  good  travelers  and  some- 
what more  hardy  than  the 
HOGS  Shorthorns. 

The  cattle  are  pastured  on  the  ranches  until  they  are  three 
veins  old.  Those  that  become  sufficiently  fat  during  the  season 
of  that  year  are  shipped  in  the  fall  directly  to  the  meat-packing 
centers.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  our  beef  comes  from  these 
sources,  but  there  are  left  on  the  ranches  each  year  large  numbers 
of  steers  that  are  not  in  condition  for  market.  Many  of  these  are 
purchased  by  farmers  in  the  corn  belt,  who  call  them  feeders. 
During  the  winter  they  are  fed  on  hay  and  corn,  then  for  a  short 
time  in  the  spring  they  are  pastured  on  good  grass,  when  they  are 
ready  for  market.  These  cattle  supply  us  with  beef  during  the 
spring  and  summer  months,  and  are  an  excellent  source  of  profit  to 
the  farmers  who  raise  corn. 


Rest  of  the  World 


Rest  of  the  World 


74  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

The  raising  of  swine  is  another  important  branch  of  the 
PORK  . 

live  stock  industry.     The  United  States  contains  over 

65,000,000  of  hogs,  valued  at  $240,000,000.  They  are  raised 
most  successfully  where  the  grain  upon  which  they  are  fattened 

is  the  most  cheaply  produced, 
consequently  we  find  the  largest 
number  of  hogs  in  the  corn 
region.  The  Berkshires,  Po- 
land-China and  Jersey  Reds  or 
Durocs  are  the  most  successful 
large  breeds.  The  best  animals 
from  any  of  these  breeds  weigh 
from  500  to  600  pounds  at  the 
end  of  eighteen  months.     The 

WOOL  >  C 

Victorias,  Essex  and  Suffolks 

are  the   most   common   small  varieties.     They   mature   early    but 

seldom  exceed  300  pounds. 

„      Sheep  raising  is  profitable  in  dry,  mountainous 

MUTTON  AND  .  l  ; ,         ,  ~    , 

regions,   where    grazing  is   good,   and   we   find 

WOOL  •  . 

these  conditions  among  the  foot-hills  bordering 

the  Great  Plains,  and  in  numerous  valleys  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Portions  of  Montana,  Wyoming  and  New  Mexico  have  extensive 
sheep  ranches.  Others  are  found  in  the  southern  half  of  California, 
while  east  of  the  Mississippi,  Ohio  is  the  only  state  in  which  large 
numbers  of  sheep  are  raised.  There  are  usually  about  62,000,000 
head  in  the  country,  and  more  than  half  of  these  are  in  seven  states 
which  are  wholly,  or  in  part,  within  the  grazing  region  of  the 
Great  Plains  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Montana  has  the  largest 
number,  and  Wyoming  comes  next. 

Sheep  are  valuable  for  wool  and  mutton,  but  sheep-growing 
regions  are  ranked  in  accordance  with  the  amount  of  wool  they 
produce.     Wherever  we  find  conditions  similar  to  those  described 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


7o 


South 

Africa 


I  mi.  u 
Kingdom 


United  mm. 


\  ii-i  ralasia 


above,  we  find  wool-growing  countries.  Besides  the  United  States, 
the  semi-arid  regions  in  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  plains  and 
foothills  in  Argentina,  and  Orange  River  and  Transvaal  Colonies 
in  South  Africa,  produce  large  quantities  of  wool  and  mutton. 

Wool  fiber  is  composed  of  small  scales  overlapping  like  the 
scales  of  a  fish.     The  ease  with  which  these  move  upon  each  other 

makes  wool  and  wool- 
en goods  very  soft.  It 
also  cm  uses  the  thread 
to  shorten  when  wet, 
so  that  great  care  has 
to  he  taken  when 
washing  woolen  fab- 
rics to  keep  them  from 

i    •    i  • 
shrinking. 

Sheep  are  graded  in  accordance  with  the  quality  of  wool 
they  produce,  coarse-wooled,  medium -wooled,  and  fine-wooled. 
Cotswolds  and  Leicesters  are  the  best  coarse-wooled  breeds; 
Southdowns  the  best  medium  grade,  and  the  Merinos  the  best 
fine-wooled  sheep.  Southdowns  are  the  best  for  mutton,  and 
Merinos  are  the  poorest.  Large  numbers  of  sheep  are  slaughtered 
each  year  for  meal. 

The  annual  wool  crop  of  the  United  States  amounts  to  a  little 
over  277, (HH), (MM)  pounds,  which  is  about  one-fourth  of  the  world's 
product.  In  addition  to  this  about  100,000,000  pounds  are 
imported.  The  woolen  manufactories  are  mostly  in  the  New  Eng- 
land and  Eastern  States. 

madituttmp      The  £reat    meat-packing    centers  are    located    at 
(  Imago,  Omaha,  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  Fort 
Worth,  Cincinnati,  Sioux  City  and   New  York.     Cattle  are  trans- 
ported to  these  centers  in  stock  cars  constructed  especially  for  the 
purpose.     The  cars  are  provided  with  troughs  for  feed  and  water, 


76  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

and  the  trains  are  run  so  as  to  cover  the  distance  in  the  shortest 
possible  time.  At  each  one  of  these  centers  are  stockyards,  into 
which  the  animals  are  unloaded  immediately  upon  -their  arrival. 
Here  they  are  sold  to  the  packing-houses,  and  for  export. 

The  large  slaughtering  houses  and 
Slaughtering  and  Packing     rendering  establishments  are  situ- 

ated  in  the  midst  of  the  stockyards,  and  animals  destined  for 
slaughter  are  driven  up  an  inclined  viaduct  to  the  top  of  the  build- 
ing where  they  are  killed.  As  the  carcass  of  the  animal  passes  from 
one  process  to  another  in  the  course  of  its  preparation,  it  descends 
until  finally  the  dressed  sides  are  sent  to  the  cold  storage  rooms 
on  the  ground  floor. 

The  system  and  despatch  attending  the  work  of  slaughtering 
and  meat  packing  are  seldom  equalled  in  any  other  line  of  industry. 
In  some  of  the  great  packing-houses  of  Chicago,  cattle  are  killed 
at  the  rate  of  eight  a  minute,  which  makes  4000  in  a  day.  Within 
forty-five  minutes  from  the  time  the  animal  is  killed,  the  dressed 
sides  of  beef  are  hanging  in  the  cold  storage  room,  and  they  have 
passed  through  the  hands  of  150  workmen  during  the  process  of 
preparation.  Hogs  are  killed  at  about  the  same  rate,  though  the 
time  required  for  dressing  is  much  less.  A  single  workman  kills 
hogs  at  the  rate  of  four  a  minute,  and  within  twelve  minutes  after 
the  pig  is  stuck  his  dressed  sides  are  in  the  cooling  room. 

Excepting  a  very  small  quantity  which  is  sold  as  fresh  meat, 
the  pork  is  prepared  for  use  before  shipping.  This  preparation 
consists  in  making  it  into  sausage,  bacon,  salt  pork  and  pickled 
hams.  Most  of  the  beef  is  shipped  in  sides  or  quarters,  which  are 
transported  in  refrigerator  cars.  When  exported  to  foreign  coun- 
tries, it  is  loaded  from  the  cars  into  refrigerator  ships  so  that  it 
reaches  its  destination  in  as  good  a  condition  as  though  it  had  been 
killed  at  the  market  where  it  is  offered  for  sale. 

In  no  industry  is  greater  care  taken  to  prevent  waste.     Every 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  77 

part  of  the  animal  is  worked  up  into  some  useful  product,  which 
can  be  exchanged  for  value.  The  most  important  of  these  by- 
products are  hides  and  leather,  lard,  tallow,  glue,  soap  and  fertil- 
izer. The  horns  and  hoot's  arc  made  into  combs  and  buttons,  the 
bristles  into  brushes,  and  the  hair  into  felt.  The  revenue  derived 
from  these  sources  is  nearly  sufficient  to  pay  the  expense  of  main- 


BEEF  IN   A  COLD  STORAGE    ROOM  IN  A   LARGE    PACKING   HOUSE 

taining  the  rendering  establishments,  and  without  this  it  would  be 
impossible  to  place  the  beef,  pork  and  mutton  which  they  produce 
upon  the  market  at  the  prices  for  which  these  articles  are  sold. 

The  United  States  produces  one-third  of  the   world's 
supply  of  meat,   which   is  much  more  than   that  pro- 
duced by  any  other  country.     This  output  requires  the  slaughter- 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  79 

ing  of  5,500,000  cattle,  9,000,000  sheep,  and  over  30,000,000 
hogs,  each  year.     Chicago  is  the  largest  meat-packing  center  in 

the  world,  and  produces  over  forty  per  cent  of  the  output  of  the 
country.  The  increase  in  the  population  of  the  Pacific  States  has 
led  to  the  establishment  of  a  few  meat-packing  centers  in  that 
region,  and  their  tendency  is  to  increase  in  size  and  importance. 

We  export  annually  about  half  a  million  cattle,  and  150,000,000 
pounds  of  beef,  besides  large  quantities  of  pork.  England  is  our 
best  customer,  followed  by  Germany  and  France. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  states  lead  in  raising  cattle?     In  raising  sheep?     Why? 

How  are  great  cities  supplied  with  fresh  milk? 

What  localities  supply  our  markets  with  the  largest  number  of  beef 
cattle?     With  the  largesl  number  of  hogs?     What  is  the  reason  for  this? 

For  what  purposes  are  sheep  valuable? 

Why  are  the  meat-packing  establishments  located  where  they  are? 
What  are  the  most  important  by-products  of  the  packing  houses? 

How  is  dressed  meat  shipped  to  distant  cities?     To  foreign  ports? 


2 

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1 

Chapter  V. 
COTTON. 

So  far  as  we  know,  the  fiber  of  the  cotton  plant  was 

HISTORY 

first  used  for  making  clothing  in  India.     In  records 

obtained  from  that  country,  bearing  the  d:ite  of  1000  B.  C,  we 
read  that  the  people  were  clothed  with  a  fine  white  cloth,  which 
certainly  means  that  they  had  garments  made  from  cotton.  His- 
torians also  generally  believe  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  cultivated 
cotton,  and  used  the  fiber  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  though  no 
evidences  of  this  industry  have  been  found  in  their  tombs  or 
temples.  Some  of  the  early  Roman  writers  refer  to  cotton  as 
"tree  wool,"  and  they  undoubtedly  obtained  this  idea  from  the 
cotton  tree  of  India.  Cotton  was  introduced  into  China  and  Japan 
at  a  very  early  date,  but  it  was  not  cultivated  in  these  countries 
for  general  use  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
When  the  Mohammedans  took  possession  of  Northern  Africa  they 
extended  the  cultivation  of  cotton  to  this  part  of  the  world;  and 
later,  when  they  made  the  conquest  of  Southern  Europe,  they 
introduced  the  industry  into  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  cotton  plant  is  a  native  of  the  New  World. 

When  Columbus  landed  on  the  West  Indies,  he 
found  the  plant  growing  there,  and  later  the  Spaniards  found  it  in 
use  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  where  the  natives  had  acquired  consid- 
erable skill   in  the  manufacture  of  cotton   fabrics. 

The  first  attempt  to  raise  cotton  in  the  American  colonies  was 
made  in  Virginia  in  1621,  but  it  was  more  than  175  years  before 
the  industry  became  at  all  important.  During  this  period  its 
growth  was  very  gradual.     By   1660,  cotton  was  raised  to  a  very 

81 


82  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

limited  extent  in  both  North  and  South  Carolina.  It  was  from 
these  beginnings  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  that  its  cultivation 
gradually  spread  to  the  other  colonies  whose  climatic  conditions 
were  such  as  to  make  its  culture  successful.  Previous  to  the 
Revolutionary  War  small  quantities  of  cotton  were  raised  in  all  the 
Southern  colonies,  and  some  was  exported  to  England. 

England  was  then,  as  she  is  now,  the  leading  country  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  and  the  inventions  of  the  spinning- 
jenny  and  the  power-loom,  and  the  modification  of  the  steam 
engine,  so  that  it  would  furnish  power  for  operating  these  machines, 
enabled  England  to  manufacture  a  much  larger  quantity  of  cotton 
woods  than  ever  before.  When  the  American  colonies  had  obtained 
their  independence,  there  was  a  greater  demand  for  cotton  by  the 
English  manufacturers  than  the  world  was  able  to  supply.  This 
was  not  so  much  because  a  sufficient  quantity  of  cotton  could  not 
be  raided,  as  it  was  on  account  of  the  labor  required  to  separate  the 
fiber  from  the  seed. 

At  this  time  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  by  Eli  Whitney, 
an  American,  removed  this  great  obstacle  to  the  cotton  industry. 
By  the  use  of  this  machine,  one  man  in  a  few  hours  could  separate 
more  cotton  from  the  seed  than  a  hundred  men  could  in  working 
by  hand  for  the  entire  day.  Probably  no  other  invention  has  ever 
produced  a  more  marked  effect  upon  the  industry  and  history  of  a 
country,  than  did  the  cotton-gin  upon  the  United  States.  As  soon 
as  the  raising  of  cotton  was  made  profitable,  large  plantations 
sprang  up  all  through  the  Southern  States,  and  it  was  from  the 
product  of  these  plantations  that  the  market  of  England  was 
supplied. 

The  cotton  plant  belongs  to  the  mallow  family, 

and  is  closely  allied  to  the  marsh  mallow  and  the 

PLAN1  hollyhock.     Originally   it  was  a  tropical   plant, 

but  its  cultivation  has  now  been  extended  to  the  fortieth  parallel 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


83 


of  latitude  on  each  side  of  the  equator.  However,  it  will  no1 
thrive  where  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  not  over  sixty  degrees. 
The  cotton  plant  grows  best  in  a  sandy  loam  containing  large 
amounts  of  lime  and  phosphate.  The  soil  of  the  Southern  States 
is  composed  largely  of  disintegrated  limestone  that  contained  these 


NEUHO   CA.BIN    IN    A    fi>TT(lS    FIKI.I) 


substances,  therefore  it  is  especially  suited  to  growing  the  plant. 
Cotton  needs  a  rainfall  of  not  less  than  forty  inches,  and  so  dis- 
tributed as  to  leave  a  gradually  drying  season  in  which  to  mature. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  cotton,  but  those  grown  in  the 
United  States  are  the  short  staple,  which  is  the  plant  having  a 
short  fiber,  and  the  long  staple,  more  generally  known  as  the  "sea 


84  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

island,"    which    has    a    long    fiber.     This    variety    was    so    named 

because  its  cultivation  was  begun  on  the  islands  along  the  coast  of 

South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  where  most  of  the  long  staple  is  still 

produced.     The  fiber  is  about  two  inches  in  length  and  very  fine 

and  strong,   making  this  the  most  valuable  cotton   grown.     The 

short  staple  is  by  far  the  most  extensive  crop,  and  it  is  this  variety 

that  fixes  the   market  quotations.     Because    it    is    raised    farther 

inland,  it  is  generally  known  as  "upland  cotton." 

The  cotton  plant  is  one  of  unusual  beauty.     The  "upland" 

variety  attains  a  height  of  about  two  feet,  while  the.  "sea  island'' 

plants  are  from  eight  to  ten  feet  high.     The  leaves  are  dark  green 

with    blue    veins.     The    plant    has    a    showy    white   flower  which 

resembles    a    single    hollyhock.       The    fruit,    in    which   the   seed 

matures,  is  a  round  pod  called  the  boll.      When  the  seed  is  ripe 

the  bolls  burst  and  the  white  fiber  appears.     The  useful  part  of  the 

plant  is  the  fine  fiber  or  wool  which  surrounds  the  seed. 

What  is  known  as  the  cotton  belt  of  the  United 
THE  COTTON     c  *  .     .    ,        ,,.    .  v.     .      n  „ 

States    includes    Mississippi,     Georgia,    lexas, 

BELT 

Alabama,  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  South  Carolina, 

"North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  Cotton  is  also  raised  in  Missouri, 
Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Oklahoma.  In  all  of  these  states  the 
agricultural  conditions  are  such  as  to  make  the  cultivation  of 
cotton  successful  and  profitable.  In  most  of  them,  previous  to 
the  Civil  War,  the  cotton  was  grown  on  large  plantations  owned 
by  slaveholders,  many  of  whom  had  become  very  wealthy.  The 
war  destroyed  these  plantations,  and  most  of  the  cotton  is  now 
raised  on  small  farms,  and  in  the  Southern  States  the  work  is 
done  almost  entirely  by  the  colored  people. 

The  seed  is  sown  the   last  of  March  or  early  in 
Cultivation     April      During  the  first  part  of-  tneir  growth  the 

plants  must  be  carefully  tended  and  kept  free  from  weeds.  The 
bolls  begin  to  ripen  about  the  first  of  September.     As  the  bolls 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


85 


Liiitcd  States 


burst  they   must  be  picked   or  the  cotton  is  injured  or  wasted. 
Nearly  all  the  work  of  the  fields  is  performed  by  hand  labor. 

Several  machines  for  picking  cotton  have  been 
=•  invented,  but  none  has  proved  very  satisfactory, 
since  during  the  early  part  of  the  harvest  the  plants  contain  both 
the  ripened  and  the  growing  bolls.  As  the  bolls  have  to  be  picked 
as  fast  as  they  burst,  the  pickers  are  obliged  to  go  over  the  field 
again  and  again,  until  the  last  bolls  have  ripened.  No  machine 
has  yet  been  invented  which  will  pick  the  ripened  bolls  and  leave 

the  others,  consequently  cotton 

must  be  picked  by  hand.     As 

soon  as   picked,  the  cotton   is 

hauled  to  the  gin-house  where 

it  is  ginned,  that  is,  separated 

from  the  seed.     From  the  gin 

it  goes  to  the  press,  where  it  is 

made  into  bales.     Each  bale  is 

intended  to  weigh  500  pounds, 

COTTON  and    the     average     weight    is 

about  480  pounds.     Tresses  for  baling  cotton  are  very  powerful, 

and  in  order  that  the  bale  may  retain  its  form  it  is  strongly  hoopeoT 

before  the  press  is  released. 

The  bales  are  usually  sent  to  the  nearest  market 
°  towns,  where  brokers  buy  the  cotton  on  commission 
for  the  agents  of  the  large  cotton  mills,  or  for  export.  That  for 
export  is  sent  to  the  seaports,  and  from  September  to  January  the 
wharfs  of  those  cities  from  which  it  is  shipped  are  crowded  with 
bails  of  cotton.  Galveston,  New  Orleans,  Savannah  and  New 
York  are  the  principal  ports  of  shipment. 

Liverpool  and  Manchester  are  the  greatest  European  cotton 
markets,  and  buy  fully  one-half  the  quantity  exported  from  the 
United  States.     Bremen,  Trieste  and  Genoa  are  also  good  markets. 


Host  of  the  World 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


87 


VALUE 


About  one-third  of  the  crop  is  consumed  in  the  United  States. 
The  mills  in  which  this  is  manufactured  are  in  the  New- England 
and  some  of  the  Southern  States. 

Of  the  four  great  staples  —  cotton,  wool,  flax  and  silk 
—  that  supply  man  with  clothing,  cotton,  on  account 
of  its  cheapness  and  its  many  excellent  qualities,  is  much  more 
extensively  used  than  any  of  the  others.  Cotton  leads  all  farm 
crops  in  cheapness  and  ease  of  production,  it  makes  scarcely  any 
drain  on  the  soil,  and  it  is  grown  and  harvested  with  the  expendi- 
ture of  less  labor  than  most  other  crops.  While  the  greatest  value 
is  in  the  fiber,  the  seed  is  a  source  of  considerable  profit.  Cotton 
seed  is  valuable  for  the  manufacture  of  oil,  and  after  the  extraction 
of  the  oil  it  makes  an  excellent  feed  for  cattle  and  a  valuable 
fertilizer  as  well.  The  stalk  also  contains  a  fiber  that  will  be 
valuable  as  soon  as  a  machine  for  extracting  it  is  invented,  while 
from  the  root  a  useful  drug  is  obtained. 


Egypt 

Chin* 

India 

United  States 

The  United  States  produces  three-fourths  of  the  cotton  raised 
in  the  world,  the  annual  crop  being  about  11,000,000  bales.  The 
value  of  the  crop  is  next  to  that  of  wheat,  which  it  sometimes 
equals  ;  but  cotton  is  considered  the  best  cash  crop  of  the  Ameri- 
can agriculturist. 

The  importance  of  the  American  cotton  crop  to  the  countries 
of  Europe  can  scarcely  be  estimated.  During  the  Civil  War  little 
or  no  cotton  was  exported  and  the  operatives  in  the  English  cotton 
mills  were   brought  to   the   verge   of  extreme    poverty   by  being 


88  COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 

thrown  out  of  work  for  most  of  the  time  that  the  war  was  in 
progress.  Besides,  the  supply  of  cotton  goods  fell  so  far  short  of 
the  demand,  both  in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  that  the  price 
of  the  common  grades  was  more  than  five  times  what  it  is  to-day, 
thus  placing  these  goods  almost  beyond  the  reach  of  the  poorer 
classes  who  relied  upon  them  for  much  of  their  clothing. 

Flax  and  silk  are  not  produced  in  the  United  States  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  warrant  their  consideration  in  connection  with 
the  other  textile  fibers. 

Other  important  crops  are  oats,   in  the  produc- 
OTHER  CROPS     tkm   ()f  whi<jh  jQwa  leadg   ,m(1    .g   followed   by 

Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  ;  barley,  raised  in  largest  quantities  in 
Minnesota,  California  and  Wisconsin  ;  hay,  in  which  New  York 
and  Iowa  lead  ;  rice,  found  chiefly  in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  and 
sugar.  Louisiana  and  Texas  produce  most  of  the  cane  sugar, 
while  Michigan,  Colorado  and  a  number  of  other  states  having  a 
cool  climate  produce  considerable  quantities  of  beet  sugar. 

QUESTIONS 

From  what  part  of  the  plant  is  the  fiber  cotton  obtained?     The  fiber 

of  flax  ? 

Why  is  more  cotton  raised  in  the  Southern  States  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world? 

What  inventions  have  aided  in  the  development  of  the  cotton 
industry? 

Why  is  England  the  leading  country  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods  ? 

For  what  other  purposes  than  the  manufacture  of  cloth  is  cotton  used? 


Chapter  VL 

FISHERIES. 

Fish  have  always  constituted  an  important  article  of  food. 
Long  before  men  liad  learned  to  domesticate  animals  they  relied 
upon  fish  as  a  means  of  sustenance,  and  to  this  day  savage  and 
partially  civilized  nations  make  tish  one  of  the  chief  articles  of 
diet  ;  and  among  civilized  people  the  taking  and  curing  of  fish  has 
for  centuries  constituted  a  profitable  employment,  often  being  the 
means  of  adding  largely  to  a  country's  prosperity. 

Food  fish  are  found  in  both  salt  and  fresh  waters, 
though  the  salt  water  tish  far  exceed  in  quantity  and 
value  those  found  in  fresh  water.  The  best  varieties 
of  food  fish  inhabit  cold  water.  Wherever  shoals  are  found  in 
the  colder  waters  of  the  sea,  or  wherever  on  land  we  find  moun- 
tain streams  fed  by  melting  snows,  or  clear  lakes  whose  sources 
are  cold  springs,  we  find  the  home  of  the  best  fish.  Good  fishing 
grounds  are  found  near  the  coast,  and  in  the  inland  waters  of  all 
the  northern  countries.  Those  belonging  to  the  United  States  are 
naturally  divided  into  three  divisions:  The  Atlantic,  the  Pacific 
and  the  Inland. 

The  fishing  grounds  of  North  America 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  extend  from 
Cape  Hatteras  northward  as  far  as  Newfoundland,  and  are  the 
most  important  on  the  Grand  Banks  lying  east  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Newfoundland,  and  adjacent  islands.  A  portion  of  these  grounds 
belong  to  Canada,  while  the  remainder  is  situated  in  the  high  seas. 
In  the  southern  portion  of  the  Atlantic  division,  the  fish  are  caught 
comparatively   near  the  shore,  and  Ibis   section    is   less   important 


The  Atlantic  Division 


90  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

than  the  northern.  The  most  important  fish. taken  in  these  waters 
are  the  cod,  herring,  mackerel,  haddock,  halibut,  shad  and 
menhaden. 

The  valuable  fisheries  around  the  Grand  Banks  were  discov- 
ered by  the  early  explorers  of  this  part  of  North  America,  and 
within  a  few  years  the  waters  were  frequented  by  both  the  English 
and  French  fishermen.  In  fact,  it  was  the  advantage  offered  by 
these  fisheries  which  first  induced  the  French  to  make  settlements 
so  far  north.  During  the  early  part  of  American  history  these 
waters  were  fished  by  both  the  French  and  English,  without  regard 
to  territory ;  but  after  the  United  States  became  independent,  the 
law  regarding  coast  waters  was  applied  to  the  fisheries.  By  the 
terms  of  this  law,  each  nation  reserves  to  its  own  fishermen  the 
exclusive  right  to  the  waters  within  three  miles  of  the  shore. 
Beyond  that  limit,  the  fisheries  are  open  to  all  on  equal  terms. 

Cod  are  the  most  important  fish  taken  in  these  waters,  both 
in  point  of  number  and  in  value.  They  are  caught  with  hook  and 
line.  The  fishermen  go  out  in  small  boats  called  schooners. 
Each  schooner  has  two  or  more  small  boats,  or  dories,  attached. 
When  the  schooner  reaches  the  banks,  it  anchors,  and  the  fisher- 
men proceed  to  put  out  their  trawls.  These  are  long  lines,  to 
which  are  attached  at  frequent  intervals  shorter  lines  bearing  hooks. 
A  good  sized  schooner  will  put  out  several  miles  of  trawl,  contain- 
ing from  10,000  to  15,000  hooks.  After  the  trawls  have  been  set, 
the  fishermen  go  along  the  lines  in  their  dories,  continuing  to  haul 
in  the  fish  that  have  been  fastened  to  the  hooks.  When  brought 
to  the  schooner,  the  fish  are  immediately  dressed,  split  open,  and 
most  of  them  salted.  The  livers  are  saved,  because  from  them  is 
taken  cod  liver  oil,  a  valuable  medicine.  When  the  schooner 
obtains  its  load  of  fish  it  returns  to  port,  and  prepares  the  fish  for 
market.  Most  cod  are  put  upon  the  market  dry  salted.  They  are 
dried   by   being  spread  upon  roofs  or  platforms,  where  they  are 


COMMEKCK    AND    INDUSTRY 


91 


exposed  to  the  air  and  sun.  Shredded  or  boneless  cod  is  made  by 
removing  the  bones  from  the  fish  and  catting  the  flesh  into  small 
strips.  It  is  then  placed  upon  the  market  in  small  packages  or 
boxes,  weighing  from  one  to  five  pounds.  Gloucester,  Massachu- 
setts, is  the  most  important  fishing  port  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and 
is  the  center  of  the  cod-fishing   industry  ;    but    nearly  all  the  towns 


'ft^b.ASt^W'l  i-  ■ 

tMMM 

ijH 

wmJm 

USzzmJmhf  r 

yysr"^ 

1^^81814,^ 

LSI 

Ws^jWISm 

:      ^*&&2gfrr.  • 

— .-—ir-  - 

r.\&Cw      /-f^  •        .4 

A    PISHING    PORT   IN    HRRUIV.    8EASON 


on  the  coasts  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  are 
engaged  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  fishing. 

Haddock,  which  closely  resemble  cod,  are  taken  near  the 
shore,  and  are  extensively  used  in  towns  along  the  coast.  They 
are  usually  dry-salted  and  are  placed  on  the  market  as  finnan 
haddie. 

Herring  and  mackerel  are  caught  in  nets.  These  fish  travel  in 
large  numbers,  called  schools,  and  when  a  school   is  encountered. 


92  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

a  boat  load  is  quickly  obtained.  By  some  authorities,  the 
herring  is  considered  the  most  important  food  fish  in  the  world, 
though  it  is  not  as  extensively  used  in  the  United  States  as 
in  Europe.  Herring  and  mackerel  frequent  the  shore  waters  of 
Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  and  are  taken  in  these  localities  in 
large  numbers.  Herring  appear  on  the  market  in  three  forms  ; 
fresh,  salted  and  smoked.  Small  herring  are  canned  in  oil  and 
sold  as  sardines  ;  but  the  real  sardine,  obtained  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean, is  an  entirely  different  fish.  The  American  sardine 
industry,  although  new,  is  rapidly  growing  in  importance.  Mack- 
erel are  usually  pickled  in  brine,  but  large  quantities  are  placed  on 
the  market  fresh. 

The  halibut  is  a  very  large  fish,  often  weighing  from  one  hun- 
dred to  three  hundred  pounds,  and  it  is  caught  by  hook  and  line. 
Halibut  is  usually  placed  on  the  market  without  salting,  and  is 
considered  one  of  our  best  salt-water  fishes. 

Shad  are  taken  in  large  numbers,  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year,  when  they  ascend  the  mouths  of  rivers  to  spawn.  This 
fish  inhabits  warmer  waters  than  the  cod  and  herring,  and  is  found 
at  the  mouths  of  all  rivers  as  far  south  as  the  Delaware.  The  shad 
is  a  fish  of  excellent  flavor,  and  is  highly  prized. 

Menhaden  are  not  important  as  a  food  fish,  but  are  taken  in 
large  quantities  because  they  are  valuable  for  their  oil,  and  the 
refuse,  after  the  oil  is  extracted,  forms  an  important  ingredient  of 
commercial  fertilizers. 

The  salmon  of  the  Atlantic  coast  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
food  fishes  in  the  world,  and  is  taken  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  for  a 
short  season  each  year.  The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Atlantic 
Division  do  not  rank  in  magnitude  with  those  of  the  Pacific;  but 
the  industry  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  attention,  though 
most  of  the  product  comes  from  the  British  provinces.  Nearly  all  of 
the  Atlantic  salmon  are  smoked  before  placing  them  on  the  market. 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 

The  coasl  wafers  of  the   Pacific  contain  about 
Pacific  Division    fche  game  ^.^  of  fi8h  Qg  thoge  of  )h(.  At]antiCj 

but  only  the  salmon  fisheries  have  been  developed.  These  are 
located  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River  and  around  Kadiak 
Island,  Alaska,  where  we  find  the  largest  salmon  fisheries  in  the 
world.  The  fish  are  caught  in  nets  and  trap-,  and  by  wheels 
which  are  so  constructed  as  to  throw  them  from  the  water  when  they 
crowd  together  in  the  streams.  The  fish  are  dressed,  packed  in 
cans  and  cooked  by  steam  which  is  raised  to  a  high  temperature. 
The  cans  are  then  scaled  ami  labelled,  after  which  they  are  ready 
for  market.  The  quantity  of  salmon  taken  from  these  waters  each 
year  is  about  125,000,000  pounds,  and  has  a  value  of  over 
$8,000,000.  The  output  is  exported  to  nearly  all  countries  in 
the  world. 

This   division    includes   the    Great    Lakes, 

The  Inland  Division    ^  riv(i].s  and   many  gma]1   ]ak(,s    whoge 

waters  abound  in  fish.  The  important  fish  of  the  Great  Lakes  are 
the  white  fish,  the  lake  trout  and  the  sturgeon.  White  fish  and 
lake  trout  are  taken  by  nets  and  weirs  or  trap-.  Sturgeon  are 
usually  taken  in  weirs,  but  may  be  caught  with  a  hook.  The 
sturgeon  is  the  largest  fresh  water  fish,  often  weighing  one 
hundred  pounds  or  more.  The  eggs  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  caviare,  and  the  flesh  is  highly  esteemed. 

Most  of  the  lake  fish  are  placed  on  the  market  fresh.  When 
caught,  they  are  dressed,  packed  in  ice  and  immediately  shipped 
to  their  destination.  The  fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes  exceed  those 
of  all  the  other  waters  of  the  country.  The  mosl  valuable  river 
fish  are  the  buffalo,  and  the  cat-fish  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
Bass,  pickerel  and  perch  are  found  in  the  -mail  lakes  and  streams, 
but  constitute  an  inconsiderable  item,  when  compared  in  value 
with  the  fish  taken  from  the  sources  named. 

Until   recently,  fish   could   not    be  shipped    any   distance    ami 


94 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


roach  the  market  in  good  condition  ;  but  the  application  of  refrig- 
eration to  this  traffic  now  enables  almost  any  market  to  be 
supplied  with  fresh  fish,  in  as  good  a  state  of  preservation  as  when 
taken  from  the  water.  This  has  tended  to  increase  the  demand, 
and  the  fisheries  of  the  United  States  are  constantly  growing  in 
value  and  extent. 


CATCHING   WHTTEFI8H,   LAKE   SUPERIOR 

For  many  years  fish  were  taken  with  so  little 
care  and  forethought,  that  finally  the  best 
species  became  nearly  extinct.  The  govern- 
ment now  has  oversight  of  the  fisheries  in  all  waters  under  its 
control,   and  through  the   United   States   fish  commission   makes 


GOVERNMENT 
CONTROL 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  95 

rules,  prohibiting  the  taking  of  fish  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
and  also  prescribing  methods  of  fishing.  The  commission  main- 
tains fish  hatcheries  at  various  localities,  where  millions  of  fish  are 
hatched  every  year.  These,  or  eggs,  are  transported  from  the 
hatcheries  in  specially  constructed  cars,  and  placed  in  the  waters 
of  lakes  and  rivers,  wherever  they  are  most  needed.  In  addition 
to  the  United  States  fish  commission,  nearly  every  state  now  has 
its  own  commission  and  maintains  its  own  hatcheries.  Most  states 
have  already  passed  stringent  laws  regarding  the  catching  of  fish. 
By  these  means,  the  supply  of  fish  is  not  only  maintained,  but  in 
some  localities  it  is  even  on  the  increase. 

While  the  value  of  the  fish  trade  does  not  compare  with  some 
other  lines  of  industry,  yet  the  use  offish  has  become  so  extensive, 
that  this  industry  has  established  an  important  line  of  commerce, 
though  scarcely  any  of  the  fish  taken  in  the  United  States  are 
exported. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  influence  did  the  fisheries  tin  mud  the  Grand  Banks  have  upon 
the  early  history  of  North  America? 

What  salt-water  fish  do  you  find  in  your  market?  Which  variety  is 
the  most  valuable  ? 

What  are  the  most  valuable  food  lish  found  in  the  Great  bakes? 
Where  are  the  most  valuable  fishing  grounds  in  these  hikes? 

Where  are  the  great  salmon  fisheries?  How  are  salmon  preserved 
for  the  market? 

Are  there  any  valuable  fishing  grounds  in  tropical  waters?  If  so, 
locate  them. 


FOREST 
REGIONS 


Chapter  VII. 
FOREST   PRODUCTS. 

Forests  arc  usually  found  in  regions  having  sandy 
and  loamy  soils,  and  an  abundant  rainfall.  They  are 
seldom  found  where  the  rainfall  is  less  than  thirty 
inches  and  in  the  United  States  the  most  dense  forests  occur  in 
regions  having  over  fifty  inches.  Mountains  within  these  regions 
are  usually  forest  clad  to  their  summits,  unless,  as  in  the  Rocky 
and  Siena  Nevadas,  the  altitude  extends  above  the  tree  line. 

The  forest  regions  of  the  United  States  are  located  in  the 
eastern  and  western  portions  of  the  country,  and  are  separated  by 
a  vast  treeless  plain.  The  eastern  region  coincides  with  the  Appa- 
lachian Highlands,  and  extends  from  Maine  to  Georgia  and 
Alabama.  The  portion  of  this  region,  south  of  the  Ohio  and 
Missouri,  extends  westward  across  the  Mississippi,  so  that  the 
southern  portion  of  Missouri,  all  of  Arkansas,  a  good  part  of 
Mississippi,  Louisiana  and  Alabama  are  quite  heavily  timbered. 
A  lighter  growth  also  extends  northward  into  Southeastern  Iowa, 
and  westward  to  include  a  portion  of  Kansas,  a  large  portion  of 
Oklahoma,  and  the  eastern  third  of  Texas,  as  far  south  as  the 
thirthieth  parellel.  Pine,  oak  and  cypress  are  the  prevailing  tree- 
in  the  southern  portion  of  this  region. 

The  northern  portion  of  the  Appalachian  region  contains 
white  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  balsam  and  many  varieties  of  hard- 
wood, such  as  maple,  birch  and  beech.  The  timber  is  heaviest  in 
Northern  Maine,  Northern  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  and  in 
the  Adirondack  region  in  New  York.  Passing  southward  the 
forest  is  most  dense  in  Western  Pennsylvania  and  along  the  moun- 

97 


98  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

tains  through  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina  and  Eastern 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  extending  into  the  northern  part  of 
Georgia  and  Alabama.  An  abundance  of  pitch  pine  is  found  in 
this  locality,  and  furnishes  the  source  from  which  most  of  our 
turpentine,  resin  and  tar  are  obtained.  Lighter  growths  on  the 
eastern  slope  descend  to  the  coastal  plain  throughout  the  entire 
region,  and  on  the  western  slope  they  extend  across  Ohio,  the 
southern  half  of  Indiana,  the  entire  portion  of  Kentucky,  and  the 
southern  part  of  Illinois. 

Around  the  Great  Lakes  there  are  extensive  forests  of  white 
pine  in  the  northern  parts  of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  and  the 
northeastern  part  of  Minnesota.  These  forests  have  furnished  the 
great  lumber  regions  of  the  country  for  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century,  and  in  many  localities  have  been  almost  entirely  destroyed. 
South  and  west,  the  growth  extends  across  all  of  Michigan,  about 
half  of  Wisconsin  and  half  of  Minnesota.  While  white  pine  is  the 
most  common  tree  in  this  region,  spruce,  balsam,  oak,  hemlock 
and  other  species  are  found. 

The  forest  regions  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Highlands  extend 
southward  along  two  lines.  The  first  follows  the  eastern  range  ot 
the  Rocky  Mountains  into  New  Mexico.  In  the  north  this  region 
covers  the  northern  portion  of  Idaho,  the  western  third  of  Montana, 
and  the  northwestern  portion  of  Wyoming.  South  of  this  point  it 
is  much  narrower,  and  is  quite  closely  confined  to  the  mountain 
range.  The  timber  is  mostly  pine.  The  trees  are  tall,  straight 
and  of  small  diameter. 

The  coast  division  extends  from  the  northern  boundary  south- 
ward  into  the  northern  part  of  California  where  it  divides  into  two 
branches.  The  eastern,  which  is  quite  narrow,  follows  the  Sierras 
as  far  as  the  thirty-fifth  parallel,  and  the  western  follows  the  coast 
almost  to  the  Golden  Gate.  The  northern  portion  includes 
Washington,  west  of  the  Columbia  River,  and  the  western  third 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  99 

of  Oregon.  Here  is  the  most  dense  forest  in  the  United  States. 
Hen*  arc  found  the  Oregon  pine,  Bugar  pine  and  the  redwood. 
The  trees  in  this  forest  are  much  larger  than  those  around  the 
Great  Lakes  and  along  the  Appalachian  Highlands,  and  extensive 

lumbering  interests  are  now  located  in  this  portion  of  Washington 
and  Oregon. 

The  greatest  use  of  forests  is  for  lumber,  and  some 
TISF  OF 

kinds  of  trees  are  more  valuable  for  this  purpose  than 
FORESTS 

others.     These  are  divided  into  hard  wood  and  soft 

wood.  The  most  valuable  of  the  soft  wood  trees,  in  their  order, 
are  white  pine,  yellow  or  pitch  pine,  spruce  and  hemlock, 
in  the  Atlantic  division  ;  and  the  red  cedar  or  redwood,  and 
Oregon  pine,  in  the  Pacific  division.  Of  the  hard  woods,  oak, 
hickory,  maple,  poplar  and  ash  are  the  most  extensively  used. 
Soft  woods  are  more  generally  used  for  making  the  frames  and 
finishing  interiors  of  buildings,  while  hard  woods  are  used  for 
finishing  interiors,  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  the  framework  of 
carriages  and  machinery,  and  for  many  small  articles  in  common 
use. 

White  pine  is  the  most  valuable  timber  tree  of  the  temperate 
regions,  and  is  more  extensively  used  than  any  other.  This  tree 
is  found  in  large  quantities  from  Maine  to  the  Mississippi  River, 
and  its  abundance  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  has 
given  rise  to  the  large  lumber  industry  now  carried  on  in  those 
states.  These  same  states  also  have  a  thriving  business  in  hard 
wood  lumber. 

Pitch  pine,  or  yellow  pine,  is  found  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  Appalachian  Highland  region,  and  is  out  quite  extensively  in 
North  Carolina  and  Georgia  and  is  known  in  the  market  as  Georgia 
pine.  The  cypress,  another  soft  wood  tree,  is  also  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  Southern  States. 

The   forests  of  the    Pacific    States   differ   from    those   of  the 


;;>i#  ;# 


^  »   "v  \i  >?'       ->•-    i  s 


I     If!?'  > 


FT- 

si  1 

i 

5*ife^i^-.t.-s«*(& 


A  GROVE   OP  REDWOODS,  OREGON 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  mi 

Atlantic  States  by  having  much  larger  trees,  and  a  much  more 
dense  growth.  The  abundant  moisture  of  this  region  causes  the 
redwood  and  the  Oregon  pine  to  grow  to  a  gigantic  size.  Trees 
measuring  four  or  six  feet  in  diameter  are  of  common  occurrence 
in  these  forests,  while  the  lame  ones  often  attain  a  diameter  of 
sixteen  feet  or  more,  and  are  nearly  four  hundred  feet  in  height. 

In  order  to  he  suitable  for  lumber,  the  trees  must  have  a 
straight  trunk,  and  be  clear  —  that  is,  free  from  branches  or  knots 
for  at  least  fifteen  feet  from  the  ground.  In  the  dense  forests,  the 
branches  will  not  grow  except  near  the  top  on  account  of  the 
shade  ;  therefore,  nearly  all  trees  used  for  lumber  are  cut  from  the, 
interior  of  the  woods.  Those  of  the  best  quality  are  taken  first 
and  worked  up  into  the  lumber  used  in  building  and  cabinet 
making.  Small  tree-,  and  those  unsuitable  for  lumber,  are  often 
cut  into  ties  and  sold  to  the  railway  companies,  while  still  others 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wood  pulp.  When  the  forest 
supplies  the  timber  for  these  three  purposes,  it  is  usually  entirely 
cut  away. 

The  first  step  in  lumbering  is  to  select  a  site  and 
*=•  establish  a  camp,  which  is  to  be  the  home  of  the 
lumbermen  during  the  season.  The  buildings  of  this  camp  are 
usually  constructed  of  logs,  and  consist  of  houses  for  the  men,  a 
kitchen  and  dining-room,  barns  and  a  blacksmith  shop.  The 
camp  is  located  at  a  point  most  convenient  for  the  work,  and  t lu- 
men composing  the  crew  are  as  thoroughly  organized  as  an 
army.  They  are  formed  into  squads,  each  in  charge  of  a  leader, 
and  designated  to  one  particular  kind  of  work.  Some  fell  the 
trees,  others  cut  them  into  logs,  while  others  with  horses  haul  the 
logs  to  the  place  from  which  they  are  loaded  on  sleds  or  cars. 
The  entire  camp  is  in  charge  of  a  foreman  whose  duty  it  is  to 
select  the  trees  to  be  cut,  and  have  general  oversight  of  all  the 
work.     An  average  sized  camp  contains  from  forty  to  fifty  men. 


102  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

Transportation  of  lumber  is  very  expensive, 
Transportation     and  the  profitg  of  the  industry  often  depend 

very  largely  upon  the  economy  that  can  be  practised  in  getting 
the  lo^s  to  the  mill,  and  the  lumber  from  the  mill  to  the  market. 
Whenever  possible,  the  logs  are  hauled  on  sleds  to  a  stream,  into 
which  they  are  rolled  when  the  ice  breaks  in  the  spring.  They 
are  then  floated  down  the  river  to  the  mills.  When  transported 
in  this  way,  the  lumbermen  at  the  end  of  the  season,  change  their 
occupation,  and  become  rivermen,  following  the  logs  and  guiding 
Shem  on  their  course. 

Naturally  the  first  lumbering  in  any  section  of  the  country  is 
near  bodies  of  water  on  which  the  logs  can  be  transported.  As 
the  trees  near  these  streams  are  cut  away,  and  the  work  goes 
farther  and  farther  from  them,  the  expense  of  hauling  the  logs  to 
the  river  becomes  so  great  that  in  many  places  steam  sawmills  are 
built  in  the  forests,  and  logs  are  worked  up  near  where  they  are 
cut.  In  other  localities  railways  are  built  into  the  logging  regions, 
:md  logs  are  taken  to  the  mill  by  train.  The  logs  from  the  lumber 
regions  near  the  Great  Lakes  are  often  freighted  by  water.  Sev- 
eral hundred  thousand  feet  of  lumber  can  in  this  way  be  built  into 
a  raft,  which  is  towed  to  its  destination  by  a  steamer.  Logs  are 
often  sent  from  Oregon  and  Washington  to  San  Francisco  in  a 
similar  manner.  This  is  the  cheapest  method  of  transportation. 
Except  felling  the  trees  and  cutting  the  logs,  the  work  in  Oregon 
and  Washington  is  done  entirely  by  machinery.  The  logs  are  so 
large  that  they  cannot  be  moved  by  teams,  and  the  smaller  trees 
are  cut  into  great  lengths  for  masts. 

The  mills  in  which  the  logs  are  made  into   lumber 

sawmills     are  known  as  sawmills.     These  mills  are  located  as 

near  the  lumber  regions  as  possible,  and  often  form  centers  around 

which  thriving  towns  spring  up,  like  Cheboygan  and  Menominee, 

Michigan.     These    mills  are    driven    by    water   or    steam  power, 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  103 

and  contain  such  machinery  as  is  necessary  to  make  the  various 
kinds  of  lumber  for  which  the  timber  of  the  region  is  adapted. 
Nearly  all  the  logs  are  sawed  into  boards  or  joists.  Some  logs  of 
the  best  quality  are  made  into  clapboards,  and  others  into  shin- 
gles, while  the  slabs  and  boards  of  very  poor  quality  are  made 
into  lath. 

Logs  are  cut  into  lumber  by  circular  saw-,  which  are  large 
steel  discs  with  teeth  on  Hie  edge  ;  band-saws,  which  are  bands  of 
steel  extended  over  large  pulleys  and  having  teeth  on  one  edge; 
and  gang-saws.  The  gang  consists  of  a  number  of  saws,  from  ten 
to  twenty-four,  arranged  in  a  steel  frame  and  as  far  apart  as  the 
desiied  thickness  of  the  boards.  These  saws  have,  an  up  and  down 
motion,  and  as  the  log  slowly  passes  through  them  it  is  cut  into 
boards.  All  of  the  work  is  done  by  machinery,  and  from  the  time 
the  log  enters  the  mill  until  the  lumber  reaches  the  yard  where  it 
is  stacked  for  drying,  it  is  scarcely  touched  by  a  workman.  If 
hardwood  is  used,  the  logs  may  be  sawed  into  parts  of  furniture, 
or  may  be  cut  by  lathes  into  very  thin  boards,  such  as  are  used  in 
veneering  and  in  the  manufacture  of  fruit  baskets. 

As  already  stated,  all  of  the  log  is  used.  The  slabs  and  poor 
boards  are  worked  into  lath,  and,  in  a  steam-mill,  the  waste  and 
sawdust  are  used  for  fuel  to  drive  the  engine.  At  every  point  the 
greatest  economy  is  practised,  and  this  is  necessary  in  order  to 
receive  a  reasonable  income  from  the  capital  invested. 

Some  of  the  lumber  is  worked  up  in  the  towns 
*=  where  the  sawmills  are  located,  and  only  the  manu- 
factured product  is  shipped.  Grand  Rapids  and  Minneapolis  are 
noted  centers  of  such  manufacture  and  contain  large  furniture  fac- 
tories, and  factories  for  making  doors,  sash,  casings,  and  finishings 
for  the  interior  of  buildings.  Large  receiving  centers  are  found 
at  convenient  points,  Chicago,  St.  Louis  and  Cairo,  Illinois,  are 
important    lumber   markets   in   the    Mississippi    Valley.     Chicago 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


105 


Uses 


United  States 


receives  a  large  part  of  the  output  from  Michigan  and  Wisconsin, 
since  it  can  he  shipped  by  boat  at  a  great  saving  of  expense.  It  is 
cheaper  to  manufacture  the  lumber  nt  these  receiving  centers,  and 
ship  the  product,  and  we  find  in  them  also  factories  for  making 
furniture,  and  all  other  articles  made  from  lumber.  Chicago  and 
Grand  Rapids  are  the  largest  furniture  manufacturing  centers  in 
the  country,  and  Chicago  is  the  largest  lumber  market  in  the 
world. 

The  uses  of  wood  are  so  extensive  and  numerous,  that  it 
would  he  impossible  to  name  them  all.  More  people  live 
in  houses  built  of  wood  than  in  those  bnilt  of  brick  and  stone. 
Wood  is  used  as  a  fuel  more  extensively  than  coal.      In  some  form 

or  other  it  touches  our  daily 
life  on  every  hand.  Besides 
forming  the  framework  and 
finishings  of  our  dwellings  and 
places  of  business,  from  it  are 
made  those  small  articles  which 
are  indispensable,  yet  so  com- 
mon that  we  do  not  realize 
their  importance  until  deprived 
TI.„T,t,„  of  their  use.      In   the  form  of 

LI  MBEU 

wood  pulp,  it  constitutes  a 
good  portion  of  all  the  paper  now  manufactured,  and  as  papier- 
mache,  it  becomes  the  material  from  which  are  made  tubs,  pails, 
and  numerous  other  domestic  utensils. 

Lumbering  ranks  fourth  among  the  great  industries  of  the 
country.  The  annual  output  is  valued  at  about  $570,000,000,  and 
the  industry  gives  employment  to  390,000  men.  The  amount  of 
lumber  consumed  for  all  purposes  in  the  course  of  a  year,  is  equal 
to  about  200,000,000,000  hoard  feet,  and  this  enormous  consump- 
tion is  rapidly  depleting  our  forests. 


Rest  ••(  the  World 


10G  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

„„,. Besides    wood    and    lumber,  our   forests    yield   us 

OTHFR  * 

several  other  products  of  importance.      From  the 

PRODUCTS        ..  ,  f    ,     c     ,,  \  .        ,  ,.  , 

pitch  pine  or  the  couth  we  get  tar,  turpentine  and 

resin.  The  tar  is  a  thick,  black  liquid,  which  is  obtained  by 
partially  distilling  the  pitch  pine.  It  is  used  for  caulking  the 
seams  on  ships,  covering  roofs  to  make  them  water-tight,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  some  kinds  of  rope.  Coal  tar  is  now  exten- 
sively used  for  these  purposes,  so  that  the  demand  for  pitch  tar 
has  been  greatly  lessened. 

Turpentine  is  procured  by  distilling  the  sap  of  the  pine.  It 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  varnish  and  in  the  preparation  of 
paint.  Resin  is  the  residue  obtained  after  the  turpentine  has  been 
driven  off  by  distillation.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  laundry 
soap,  as  a  reducing  agent  in  soldering,  in  making  varnish  and  for 
some  other  minor  purposes. 

The  bark  of  the  hemlock  and  the  oak  is  extensively  used  in 

tanning  leather. 

„ .  „ . „„      However  valuable  forests  may  be  as  the  source  of 

VALUE  OF  *  .... 

lumber  and  other  products,  they  are  ot  still  greater 
FORESTS  . 

value  on  account  of  their  place  in  the  economy  of 

nature.  Forests  are  the  great  conservators  of  moisture,  and  their 
influence  upon  the  water  supply  of  the  country  is  much  more 
extended  than  we  often  think.  The  ultimate  sources  of  all  impor- 
tant streams  are  in  heavilv  timbered  regions.  The  great  areas  of 
rootage  and  leafage  formed  by  these  forests  are  the  principal 
agents  in  regulating  and  increasing  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the 

coo  o 

atmosphere. 

The  roots  of  trees  are  constantly  drawing  water  from  the 
soil,  which,  after  it  circulates  through  the  plant,  is  given  off 
by  the  leaves  in  the  form  of  vapor.  At  first  thought  it  would 
seem  that  the  amount  of  moisture  thus  given  to  the  atmosphere 
would  be  extremely  small,  but  the  best  authorities  tell  us  that  a 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  107 

medium-sized  elm  contains  about  7,000,000  loaves  which  present 
to  the  air  a  surface  of  about  five  aero,  and  that  these  leaves  will 
give  oft'  about  seven  and  three-quarters  tons  of  water  in  twelve 
hours  of  clear,  dry  weather.  When  we  multiply  this  by  hundreds 
and  thousands  to  represent  the  trees  in  a  large  forest  we  soon 
discover  that  the  amount  of  water  thus  discharged  into  the  atmo- 
sphere is  beyond  our  comprehension. 

The  soil  of  the  forest  has  been  made  porous  by  the  numerous 
roots  that  permeate  it,  so  that  it  absorbs  the  water  from  heavy 
rainfalls  or  melting  snows,  and  easily  retains  it,  allowing  it  to  How 
out  gradually  through  the  springs  and  small  streams.  When  an 
area  has  been  denuded  of  its  forest  trees,  instead  of  absorbing  the 
water  from  the  heavy  rainfalls,  the  soil  allows  it  to  run  off,  and  we 
find  that  streams  flowing  from  these  regions  suddenly  become 
flooded  and  often  do  great  damage. 

The  greatest  dangers  to  our  forests  are  from  their  ruthless 
destruction  by  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  lumber  industry,  and 
from  forest  tires  which  destroy  thousands  of  acres  every  year.  It 
is  only  within  a  few  years  that  the  Government  has  realized  the 
importance  of  preserving  the  forests  around  the  sources  of  our 
great  rivers,  and  has  taken  such  measures  as  will  prevent  their 
destruction.  The  Department  of  Agriculture  now  has  a  Bureau  of 
Forestry.  The  duties  of  this  bureau  are  to  prevent  the  cutting  of 
timber  from  government  lands,  to  prevent  forest  fires,  and  to 
instruct  those,  who  so  desire,  in  the  care  of  forests  and  tin-  growth 
of  trees.  Some  of  our  leading  colleges,  also,  now  give  courses  in 
forestry,  and  our  public  schools  observe  Arbor  Day  throughout 
the  country,  the  purpose  being  to  interest  the  pupils  in  the  plant- 
ing and  growth  of  trees.  In  the  western  half  of  the  United  States 
forest  reserves  have  now  been  established  around  the  head  waters 
of  the  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Yellowstone  and  some  other  impor- 
tant rivers.     Some  of  these,  as  in  the  case  of  Yellowstone  Park 


108  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

and  Yosemite,  have  also  been  made  national  parks.  The  United 
States  is  gradually  assuming  that  care  of  her  forests,  which  for 
many  years  has  been  exercised  by  the  Germans  over  the  forests  of 
their  country,  and  if  this  is  continued  there  is  no  reason  why 
trees  should  not  grow  as  fast  as  they  are  used,  and  our  forests  be 
maintained  for  years  to  come. 

QUESTIONS. 

How  many  different  trees  can  you  recognize?     Name  them. 

Why  are  forests  more  generally  found  in  mountainous  regions  than 
on  plains? 

What  benefits  do  forests  confer  upon  the  country  besides  furnishing 
lumber  and  fuel? 

What  measures  does  the  government  take  to  protect  forests? 

Where  are  the  great  lumber  markets  located?     Why? 

Why  is  white  pine  so  extensively  used  for  lumber?  Name  some  of 
the  uses  for  which  hard-wood  lumber  is  employed. 


Chapter  VIII. 
MINERAL    INDUSTRIES. 

Buried  beneath  its  surface,  the  earth  contains  untold  treas- 
ures. Some,  like  precious  stones,  are  valuable  because  they  are 
rare  and  beautiful  ;  others,  such  as  gold  and  silver,  because  of 
their  peculiar  relation  to  commerce  and  industries;  while  still 
others,  such  as  iron,  copper  and  coal,  because  their  general  use- 
fulness has  given  them  important  economic  relations.  These 
common  minerals  are  so  closely  associated  with  all  lines  of  industry 
that  they  have  become  indispensable. 

Mining  is  the  occupation  of  extracting  minerals  from 

MINING     tl         ",  ,         1  f.  ;,  f 

the   earth,  and    sometimes    the    process  or    separating 

metals  from  their  ores  is  so  closely  associated  with  it,  that   both 

operations  are  considered  together.     This  is  particularly  true  of 

those   mines  having  smelting  works   near  at  hand,  and  whose  ores 

contain  a  number  of  metals,  such  as  gold,  silver  and  copper. 

Minerals  are   most  abundant  in  the  moun- 

Location  of  Mines    ..  •  .  ,       ,  , 

tainous    regions,    and,    as    already     noted, 

we  tind  the  important  mining  states  to  be  those  of  the  Appalachian 
and  Rocky  Mountain  Highland  regions.  To  this  we  must  make 
one  noted  exception.  The  great  coal-producing  states  of  Ohio, 
Indiana  and  Illinois  are  located  in  the  prairie  region,  and  their 
coal  measures  seem  to  lie  as  they  were  first  formed,  without 
having  undergone  any  change  of  position  by  such  movements  of 
the  earth's  crust  as  formed  the  great  mountain  ranges. 

All  mining  is  prosecuted  in  very  much  the  same  way. 

When  the  material  to  be  obtained  is  deep  in  the 
ground,  shafts  are  sunk,  and,  from  the  foot  of  these,  galleries  are 

109 


THE  DOUBLE  HOIST  AT  THE  BUTTE  MINES,  MONTANA 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  111 

excavated.  The  galleries  follow  the  vein  of  mineral  and  are  often 
very  irregular  and  winding.  The  surrounding  rock  is  kept  from 
caving  in  by  timbers  which  are  put  in  place  as  the  excavation 
proceeds.  The  ore  is  hoisted  to  the  surface  by  elevators,  operated 
by  hoisting  engines,  or  it  is  taken  out  by  tram  cars.  Every  mine 
is  provided  with  ventilating  shafts  and  with  pumps  for  earning  off 
the  water  that  is  constantly  running  down. 

In  many  mines  among  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  in  the  coal 
regions  of  Pennsylvania  shafts  are  sunk  to  a  great  depth,  and 
several  galleries,  called  levels,  are  excavated,  one  above  the  other, 
the  ore  from  all  being  brought  to  the  surface  from  the  same  shaft. 
The  aim,  in  all  cases,  is  to  secure  the  mineral  with  the  least 
possible  expense  consistent  with  safety  to  the  miners. 

When  the  ore,  or  metal,  occurs  on  the  surface,  as  in  case  of 
gold  in  the  sand  and  graved  on  the  beach  or  along  the  bed  of  a 
stream,  mining  is  a  very  simple  process.  The  gravel  is  shovelled 
into  a  pan,  or  sluice,  and  washed.  The  gold  is  heavier  than  the 
pebbles  and  sinks  to  the  bottom  more  quickl}7.  When  the  wash- 
ing is  in  a  sluiceway,  slats  are  nailed  across  the  bottom  of  the 
sluice  everv  few  feet.  The  water  is  turned  on  and  the  gravel 
shovelled  in  at  the  upper  (Mid.  As  the  gold  sinks,  the  slats  keep 
it  from  running  down  the  sluice,  and,  when  the  water  is  shut  off, 
it  is  picked  out.  The  great  iron  mines  around  the  upper  end  of 
Lake  Superior  are  also  surface  mines.  But  these  are  described  on 
page  123. 

Towns    usually   spring    up    around    the    mines. 
Mining  Towns    They  comprise  the  dwellings  of  the  miners  and 

officers,  a  few  stores,  possibly  one  or  two  banks  and  hotels, 
and  one  or  more  places  of  amusement,  with  other  public  buildings. 
Most  of  these  towns  are  of  a  temporary  nature,  and  disappear 
when  the  mine  becomes  exhausted,  and  the  miners  remove  to 
another  locality.      For  this   reason  the    buildings  are   usually  plain 


112  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

board  structures  of  the  simplest  sort.     They  may  be  comfortable 
and  reasonably  convenient,  but  they  are  not  ornamental. 

The  mining  industry  is  closely  related  to  trans- 
Importance  potation  and  manufactures.  The  carrying  of  ore, 
coal  and  stone  constitutes  the  larger  part  of  the  business  of  those 
lines  of  railway  which  traverse  the  mining  regions,  and  the  prod- 
uct of  the  mines  constitutes  the  fuel  and  raw  material  necessary  to 
a  number  of  lines  of  manufacture.  In  addition  to  this,  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  mills  that  work  up  this  raw  material  are  necessary 
to  other  factories  engaged  in  the  production  of  entirely  dif- 
ferent lines  of  goods.  The  lumber  of  the  sawmills  enters  into 
the  manufacture  of  furniture,  the  construction  of  houses,  and  the 
making  of  many  domestic  utensils.  Iron  enters  into  the  construc- 
tion of  all  machinery,  and  without  machinery  many  of  the  products 
of  the  present  day  would  be  impossible. 

The  mountainous  regions,  though  rugged  and  barren  on  the 
surface,  are  valuable,  for  without  the  minerals  which  they  contain, 
much  of  the  business  of  the  world,  as  now  carried  on,  would  be 
wholly  impossible. 

All  minerals  can  be  divided  into  two  great  classes  —  metals 
and  non-metals.  Gold,  silver,  iron,  copper  and  lead  are  examples 
of  our  most  common  metals.  Coal,  marble,  granite,  sand  and 
salt  are  examples  of  non-metals.  This  class  is  much  larger  than 
the  metals,  and  many  substances  found  in  it  ditFer  widely  from 
each  other  in  appearance  and  properties. 

QUESTIONS. 

Are  any  important  minerals  found  in  your  locality?  If  so,  for  what 
are  they  used  ? 

What  is  an  ore?     What  ores  can  you  tell  by  their  appearance? 

Why  are  mining  towns  usually  so  poorly  built? 

How  many  metals  can  you  recognize?     Name  them. 

How  many  different  kinds  of  rock  can  you  recognize?  What  is  the 
difference  between  a  rock  and  a  metal? 


CHARACTERISTICS 


Chapter  IX. 
METALS. 

In  general,  metals  have  a  bright  lustre,  are 
hard  and  are  good  conductors  of  heat ;  that 
is,  they  heat  and  cool  quickly.  They  are  also  good  conductors 
of  electricity,  and,  with  the  exception  of  mercury,  are  solid  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  but  melt  when  heated  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture. Many  metals  in  their  pure  state  are  mere  curiosities  and 
only  a  few  of  the  entire  series  enter  extensively  into  the  world- 
industries  and  commerce.  The  most  important  of  these  arc  erold, 
silver,  copper,  zinc,  lead,  tin,  mercury,  aluminum  and  iron. 

Metals  are  found  in  a  pure  state  scattered  through  veins 

ORES  •  • 

of  rocks,  or  combined  with  some  substance  in  the  form 

of  rock.  Gold  and  copper  are  good  examples  of  metals  occurring 
in  the  pure  state  in  veins.  Gold  is  usually  found  imbedded  in 
veins  of  quartz,  and  copper  may  be  in  quartz  or  other  rock.  The 
veins  fill  crevices  in  the  surrounding  rock,  which  is  of  an  entirely 
different  sort.  The  veins  are  very  irregular,  may  be  from  a  few 
inches  to  several  hundred  feet  in  width,  and  frequently  send  off 
branches  in  various  directions.  The  rock  in  the  vein  and  sur- 
rounding the  metal  is  usually  known  as  gangue.  Ore  in  the  form 
of  rock  is  more  liable  to  occur  in  masses.  Then  the  rock  is 
quarried  and  treated  to  the  process  necessary  for  extracting  the 
metal. 

„.._      Gold   has  been  one  of  the   longest    known  of  the  metals. 
It    is  widely   distributed  over  the  earth,  and  occurs  free, 
thai    is,  in  a  pure  state.      Wherever  it   occurs   it   is  readily  recog- 
nized   by    its    color,   and    with   few   exceptions    is   easily    obtained. 

113 


114  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

The  ancients  used  gold  for  the  purpose  of  ornaments,  jewels  and 
utensils  in  their  sacred  temples.  Then,  as  now,  a  high  value  was 
placed  upon  it. 

The  United  States,  South  Africa  and  Australia 
are  the  leading  gold-producing  countries  of  the 
world.  The  gold  regions  of  the  United  States  are  confined  to  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Highlands,  the  Pacific  Slope  and  Alaska,  where 
extensive  placer,  or  surface,  mines  have  been  recently  developed 
in  Seward  Peninsula  and  along  the  Yukon  River.  The  aggregate 
production  of  gold  in  the  world,  is  some  over  $300,000,000  a  year. 
Of  this  amount,  the  United  States  including  Alaska  produces 
about  $80,000,000,  or  a  little  more  than  one-fourth. 

Gold  is  of  sreat  importance  in  commerce  and  in  the  arts. 

Use 

It  will  not  tarnish  and  can  not  be  corroded  by  any  sub- 
stance but  a  mixture  of  muriatic  and  nitric  acids,  and  is  the  only 
metal  that  can  be  used  for  some  forms  of  gilding,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  finest  quality  of  jewelry  and  ornamental  ware. 
On  account  of  its  steady  value,  it  has  become  the  standard  for 
money  in  nearly  all  civilized  nations.  In  the  United  States  25.8 
grains  of  gold  make  a  dollar,  which  gives  the  metal  a  value  of 
$20.67  a  troy  ounce.  In  practice,  a  small  quantity  of  copper  and 
silver  are  mixed  with  the  gold  to  harden  it,  so  as  to  prevent  loss 
by  the  wearing  away  of  the  coin. 

Silver  has  probably  been  known  as  long  as  gold.     It 
SILVER  .  . 

is  as  widely  distributed  through  the  earth,  and  is  even 

more  abundant.     Unlike  gold,  however,  it  is  not  found  in  a  free 

state,  but  occurs  combined  with  one  or  more  substances  in  the 

form  of  ore.     Most  of  the  ore  is  a  dark  colored  rock,  in  which  we 

find  the  silver  frequently  combined  with  lead  and  copper,  and  it  is 

from  the  reduction  of  ores  of  this  sort,  that  a  large  part  of  the 

silver  produced  in  the  United  States  is  obtained.     The  processes 

are  very   complex,  and   consist  in  crushing  the  ore,   washing  it, 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


11 


treating  it  with  chemicals  and  smelting.  Our  annual  production 
is  about  74,500,000  ounces.  The  other  leading  silver  countries  are 
Mexico,  Peru  and  Bolivia. 

Silver  is  used  to -some  extent  in  coinage,  but  largely  in  the 

manufacture  of  silverware  and  plate.  Several  of  its  compounds 
are  also  employed  in  photography.     Gold  and  silver  are  considered 


CONCENTRA.TORS   IV   A   GOLD    Mil. I. 

Concentrators  arc  tables  having  a  vibratory tion,  and  when  tn  use  water  Is  constantly  runnlr 

them.  They  arc  used  with  ore  containing  gold  and  silver.  The  ore  is  crushed  very  Bne,  then  the 
worthless  parts  are  separated  by  running  the  crushed  ore  over  the  concentrator.  The  pari-  containing 
the  metal  are  heavier  than  the  others  and  settle  while  the  running  water  washes  the  rock  away. 

as  the  commercial   metals,  for  the  values  of  all  commodities  are 

measured   by  them,  and   for  centuries  they  have  constituted   the 

.medium  of  exchange  for  the  world. 

Copper  is  one  of  the  most  useful  metals   in  the  arts. 
COPPER 

and,  like  gold   and   silver,  was   known  to  the  ancients 

who  used  some  of  its  ores  in  the  manufacture  of  bronze.     It  was 


il(j  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

with  tools  of  bronze  that  the  Egyptians  cut  and  fashioned  the 
stones  for  their  temples  and  monuments,  and  the  possession  of 
large  mines  of  copper  made  them  the  leading  commercial  nation  of 
their  time.  While  copper  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  it 
occurs  in  large  quantities  only  in  a  few  localities.  The  copper 
regions  of  the  United  States  are  along  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  in  and  around  Butte  and  Helena,  Montana,  and  in 
several  localities  in  Arizona. 

The  mines  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  are  on  the  small 
peninsula  known  as  Kewenaw  Point,  and  are  among  the  most 
interesting  mines  in  the  world.  The  copper  in  this  region  occurs 
as  free  metal,  and  is  found  in  veins  in  rock.  It  is  obtained  by 
crushing  the  rock,  then  separating  the  metal  by  washing.  These 
mines  have  been  worked  continuously  since  1847,  and  some  of 
them  now  extend  over  a  mile  below  the  surface  and  are  the 
deepest  in  the  world.  The  ore  in  the  Montana  and  Arizona  dis- 
tricts is  in  the  form  of  a  sulphide,  from  which  the  copper  is 
obtained  by  roasting  and  then  smelting. 

The  mines  of  the  Montana  region  arc  the  most  extensive  and 
produce  the  largest  supply.  The  ore  in  these  mines  is  a  dark 
slate-colored  rock  from  which  the  copper  is  obtained  by  first 
crushing  it,  then  washing  it  repeatedly  upon  vibrating  tables  over 
which  water  is  running,  to  separate  the  portions  containing  the 
copper.  The  particles  containing  the  metal  are  heavier  than  the 
others  and  settle,  while  the  lighter  and  worthless  portions  are 
carried  away  by  the  water.  The  crushed  ore  is  then  roasted  in 
large  furnaces  where  it  is  brought  to  a  red  heat.  This  drives  off 
the  sulphur  in  the  form  of  gas,  and  the  roasted  ore  when  smelted 
yields  the  copper.  The  gas  driven  off  in  roasting  the  ore,  destroys 
vegetation,  and  scarcely  a  green  thing  can  be  seen  in  and  about 
Butte  or  Anaconda,  where  the  furnaces  are  located.  The  Arizona 
mines  have  not  yet  been  fully  developed,  but  they  rank  second  in  the 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  117 

United  States,  in  the  order  of  production,  the  Luke  Superior  mines 
being  third. 

The  United  States  as  a  whole  produces  about  three-fifths  of 
the  world's  supply  of  copper,  and  the  mines  in  the  three  regions 
named  yield  about  one-half  of  this  quantity.  Our  export  trade  in 
copper  is  quite  important ,  amounting  to  something  over  170,000 
tons  a  year.  About  one-half  of  this  goes  to  Germany,  and  most 
of  the  balance  to  France  and  the  United  Kingdom. 

Copper  is  combined  with  zinc  in  the  manufacture  of  brass,  and 
with  zinc  and  other  metals  for  the  making  of  various  kinds  of 
bronze.  It  is  also  used  in  sheets  for  making  boilers,  covering 
roofs  and  sheathing  the  hulls  of  ships,  but  by  far  the  mo.st 
extensive  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  copper  wire  which  is 
lare/ely  employed  in  the  construction  and  operation  of  electrical 
machinery. 

Zinc   occurs    in   ore  commonly    known   as    blende.     The 

7TNP 

mos'i  valuable  mines  are  located  in  the  vicinity  of  Joplin, 
Missouri,  and Platteville,  Wisconsin.  Other  mines  of  some  import- 
ance are  found  in  Illinois,  Indiana  and  New  Jersey.  The  amount 
of  zinc  produced  in  the  country  is  not  large,  but  in  considering  our 
mineral  industries,  this  metal  deserves  a  notice  on  account  of  it •< 
relation  to  other  metals  with  which  it  is  combined  in  so  many  ways 
as  to  make  it  an  important  article  of  commerce. 

Lead  is  found  more  generally  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  and  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Illinois,  where  it 
occurs  in  a  compound  of  lead  and  sulphur.  As  already  stated, 
much  of  the  lead  ore,  especially  that  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region, 
is  combined  with  silver  and  copper,  so  that  on  reduction  the  ore 
often    yields   the   three    metals.      The   most    extensive    uses   of  lead 

are  for  making    lead    pipe,  and    in    the    manufacture  of  a  c pound 

known  as  white  lead,  which   forms  the   basis  of  our  most    valuable 
paints. 


118  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

Nearly  all  the  mercury  produced  in  the  world  is 
obtained  from  California.  Mercury  is  about  thirteen 
and  a  half  times  heavier  than  water  and  at  ordinary  temperatures  is 
a  liquid.  These  peculiarities  make  it  valuable  in  the  manufacture 
of  thermometers  and  barometers.  It  readily  dissolves  gold  with 
which  it  forms  an  amalgam,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  extensively 
employed  in  obtaining  gold  from  ores  in  which  the  gold  occurs  in 
small  quantities.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paint 
known  as  vermilion,  and  for  silvering  mirrors. 

Aluminum  is  found   in  all  clay   compounds,  and 

ALUMINUM  •  I 

exists  in  abundance,  but  as  yet  we  have  not  been 

able  to  extract  it  from  but  a  few  of  its  ores.  The  richest  of  these 
is  the  mineral  known  as  bauxite,  from  which  the  aluminum  is 
obtained  by  a  powerful  electric  current.  It  is  only  since  the 
construction  of  the  large  dynamos  at  Niagara,  that  the  production 
of  aluminum  for  commercial  purposes  has  been  possible,  and  nearly 
all  the  supply  for  the  world  is  produced  by  the  Pittsburg  Reduc- 
tion Company,  which  operates  plants  at  Niagara  Falls  and  Pittsburg 
in  the  United  States,  and  in  England. 

Aluminum  is  rapidly  coming  into  use  for  various  purposes. 
It  is  now  employed  in  the  construction  of  household  utensils  ;  it 
is  taking  the  place  of  copper  for  wire  in  connection  with  electric 
machinery,  and  is  used  in  place  of  stone  in  printing  lithographs. 

IRON    AND    STEEL. 

Iron  is  the  most  useful  and   important  of  all  the  metals. 

IRON 

It  is  distinctly  the  metal  of  civilization,  and  its  extensive 

use  characterizes  the  present  as  the  Iron  Age.  On  account  of  the 
difficulty  in  extracting  iron  from  its  ores,  it  was  not  known  or 
used  for  several  centuries  after  gold,  silver  and  copper  were 
common.     The  Romans  acquired  the  art  of  smelting  the  ore,  and 


COMMKKCK    AND    INDUSTRY 


ny 


United  States 


Resl  of  the  World 


used  iron  at  first  for  coins,  then  for  tools  and  weapons.  Other 
nations  followed  the  example  of  the  Romans  and  improved  upon 
their  methods,  and  each  century  has  seen  the  use  of  iron  widely 
extended. 

Iron  is  seldom  found  free  in  nature,  but  is  extracted 
iron  Ure     from  j^s  ore  -which  occurs  in  the  form  of  rock,  and  is 
very  generally  distributed  over  the  earth.     Its  occurrence  in  com- 
mercial quantities  in  or  near  those  localities  where  find  is  abundant 

is  one  of  the  principal  factors  in  a 
nation's  prosperity.  Sometimes 
water  percolating  through  rock 
containing  iron  dissolves  a  por- 
tion of  the  metal,  and  brings  it 
to  the  surface  where  it  is  occa- 
sionally deposited  in  bogs  and 
marshes.  These  deposits  look 
like  large  lumps  of  rusty  iron. 
ikon  and  steel  and  are  known  as  bog  ore.      It 

was  from  this  ore  that  iron  was  first  made  in  the  United  States. 

The  important  iron  regions  of  the  United  States 
Iron  Regions  (H.(.ur  in  th(i  Appalachian  Highlands,  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Highlands,  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  in  the  Ozark  Mountains,  in  Missouri.  Of  these,  the  Rocky 
Mountain  deposits  and  those  in  the  Ozark  Mountains  have  not  yet 
been  developed.  The  iron  industry  began  in  those  portions  of  the 
country  that  were  first  settled,  consequently  the  mines  in  the 
Appalachian  Highlands  have  been  worked  tor  a  long  period,  and 
in  the  northern  portion  of  this  region,  among  the  Adirondack 
Mountains,  some  have  become  nearly  exhausted. 

The  most  prolific  sources  of  iron  at  the  present  time  are  in 
the  Lake  Superior  region  where  large  deposits  of  red  hematite 
are  found   in  the    Mesaba   Range    in    cvlinnesota  and   the   Gogebic 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  121 

Range  in  Michigan,  just  south  of  the  lake.  In  both  these 
regions  the  ore  occurs  in  the  form  of  decomposed  rock  or  gravel, 
and  is  in  such  a  state  that  it  can  be  loaded  on  to  the  cars  by 
the  use  of  steam  shovels.  One  of  these  shovels  will  scoop  up 
several  tons  of  ore  at  a  time,  and  it  requires  hut  a  few  minutes 
to  load  the  car.  This  ore  is  loaded  on  cars  specially  constructed 
for  the  purpose.  These  cars  are  then  run  upon  elevated  tracks 
at  the  ore  docks,  where  they  are  unloaded  by  dumping  the 
ore  into  chutes.  These  chutes  are  of  sufficient  height  to  allow 
the  ore  to  slide  from  them  into  the  holds  of  the  ships,  which 
transport  it  to  the  iron  manufacturing  centers  on  Lakes  Erie  and 
Michigan.  So  perfect  is  the  arrangement  of  all  these  appliances 
that  a  large  ship  can  be  loaded  with  ore  in  from  one  to  three 
hours,  and  smaller  ships  in  less  than  an  hour.  The  ore  is  so 
easily  mined,  and  water  transportation  is  so  cheap,  that  the  ore 
from  this  region  is  often  delivered  at  Cleveland  or  Erie,  Pennsyl- 
vania, at  an  expense  of  from  $1.75  to  $3.25  per  ton. 

The  great  iron  mills  are  located  where  the  ore  and 
Iron  Mills  ^  fue|  reqUire(j  t()  smelt  it  can  be  the  most  cheaply 
brought  together.  These  localities  are  in  Western  Pennsylvania. 
Southeastern  Ohio,  around  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan. 
and  near  Birmingham,  Alabama  ;  consequently,  we  find  Cleveland. 
Ohio,  Erie  and  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  Chicago.  Illinois,  and 
Birmingham  and  Bessemer,  Alabama,  to  be  our  most  important 
cities  in  the  production  of  iron  and  steel. 

Since  it  requires  about  two  and  one-third  tons  of  coal  to  smelt 
a  ton  of  ore,  it  is  much  cheaper  to  transport  the  ore  into  the 
locality  where  the  fuel  is  obtained,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  the 
boats  which  take  the  ore  from  the  Lake  Superior  region  to  the 
ports  on  the  lower  lakes  can  return  laden  with  coal,  so  that  with 
the  transportation  of  both  commodities  the  traffic  for  these  lines  of 
steamers  is  very  profitable.     Moreover,  this  method  of  transporta- 


122  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

tion  enables  the  people  of  the  West  and  the  Northwest  to  obtain 
their  coal  at  a  much  lower  rate  than  they  could  if  it  were  trans- 
ported all  the  way  from  the  mines  by  rail.  Much  of  the  coal  used 
in  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  and  even  in  Illinois,  is 
brought  by  boats  to  some  lake  port,  and  from  there  shipped  to  its 
destination. 

Iron  ore  is  smelted  by  crushing  the  ore  and  mixing 
°  it  with  the  proper  proportions  of  coke  and  limestone. 
The  limestone  does  not  affect  the  quality  of  the  iron,  but  at  a  high 
temperature  it  fuses  with  the  silica  in  the  ore  and  forms  the  slag, 
thus  setting  the  iron  free.  The  smelting  is  done  in  blast  furnaces 
which  are  from  90  to  100  feet  in  height,  and  cylindrical  in  form. 
The  furnace  is  charged  from  the  top,  and  the  intense  heat  required 
is  produced  by  forcing  a  blast  of  hot  air  through  the  mass  after  the 
coke  has  been  ignited.  As  the  iron  melts  it  settles  at  the  bottom 
of  the  furnace,  and  is  drawn  off  through  an  opening  made  for  that 
purpose.  The  slag  is  lighter  than  the  iron  and  is  drawn  off' 
through  another  opening  above  that  through  which  the  iron  flows. 
As  the  charge  in  the  furnace  settles  more  is  added  at  the  top  and 
the  process  is  continued  for  weeks,  and  often  for  months,  without 
ceasing. 

Iron  is  used  in  three  forms  ;  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  and 

Uses  -r  .  i      • 

steel.     When  the  melted  iron  comes  from  the  turnace,  it 

is  either  run  into  steel  molds  or  into  channels  in  sand ;  in  either 

case,  it  is  cast  into  bars  known  as  pig-iron.     This  is  the  crudest 

form  of  cast  iron  and  is  used  directly  in  making  articles,  such  as 

stoves,  and   some  ordinary  utensils   where  great  strength   is   not 

required.     These  articles  are  cast  by  simply  re-melting  the  iron 

and  pouring  it  into  the  molds. 

When  pig  iron  is  melted  in   a   furnace   in  which  it  can  be 

stirred  or  puddled,  the  quality  of  the  iron  is  greatly  improved.     It 

loses  its  brittleness   and   can  be  rolled   out  into   bars,  or  sheets, 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


1 23 


without  difficulty,  and  can  be  bent  without  breaking.  This 
product  is  called  wrought  iron,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
rods  and  many  articles  where  toughness  and  strength  arc  required, 
though  the  present  method  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  has  some- 
what restricted  its  use. 


A    STEEL    MIU. 


Steel   is  a  form  of  iron  which  contains  a  certain  amount 

STFFL 

of  carbon.     'Flos  increases  the   hardness  of  the  metal 

and  also  its  strength.      Steel  is  made   by  two  methods.      The  old 

method  is  to  pack  bars  of  wrought  iron  in  iron  boxes  with  charcoal 

and  keep  them  at  a  red  heat  for  several  days.      This  method  is  -till 

used  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  of  a  very  tine  quality. 

For    nearly    all    purposes    for  which    steel    is 

used,    it    is    now    manufactured    by    what    is 

known    as   the    Bessemer   process,   which   takes  its   name   from   Sir 

Henry   Bessemer,    its    discoverer.     Cast    iron   contains   too   much 


Bessemer  Steel 


124 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


carbon,  and  wrought  iron  does  not  contain  enough.  By  the  old 
method  of  making  steel  the  carbon  was  burned  into  the  wrought 
iron.  By  the  Bessemer  process  it  is  burned  out  of  the  cast  iron. 
The  iron  as  it  comes  from  the  smelter  is  run  into  a  huge  egg- 
shaped  furnace  called  a  converter,  and  a  blast  of  air  is  immediately 
forced  through  it.  This  burns  out  the  excess  of  carbon.  The 
color  of  the  flame  as  it  comes  from  the  converter  enables  the  work- 
man to  determine  when  the  process  should  be  stopped.  A  little 
manganese  or  a  small  quantity  of  some  other  iron  ore  is  then  added, 


Russia 


United  Kingdom 


United  Stales 


U 


IRON  AND   STEKL 


and  the  melted  steel  is  then  cast  into  bars  or  ingots,  which  are 
sent  to  the  rolling-mills,  where  they  are  reheated  and  rolled, 
drawn  or  hammered   into  any  form  required. 

The  Bessemer  process  of  making  steel  is  one  of  the  greatest 
discoveries  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  has  completely  revolu- 
tionized not  only  the  iron  industry  but  many  others  as  well.  By 
this  process  the  price  of  steel  has  been  so  reduced  that  it  is  now 
used  for  many  purposes  for  which  it  was  not  formerly  available. 
As  a  result  of  this  discover}7,  the  modern  railway,  with  its  giant 
locomotives  and  heavy  freight  cars,  became  practicable  ;  employing 
Bessemer  steel  in  the  construction  of  steamships  made  possible  the 
building  of  the  great  ocean  liners  now  common  in  the  ports  of  all 
leading  commercial  nations  ;  and  its  use  for  frames  of  buildings  has 
led  to  the  modern  city  block  often  extending  skyward  for  twenty 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  125 

or  thirty  stories.  Besides  affecting  these  larger  industries,  the 
extended  use  of  steel  has  also  influenced  many  of  lesser  importance, 
and  these  arc  so  numerous  that  to  enumerate  them  would  make  a 
list  entirely  too  long. 

The  United  States  is  the  leading  nation  in  the 

PRODUCTION  i  i   •     41  a     *•         e  •  a     *     i       ci 

world  in  the  production  ot  iron  and  steel.     She 

is    followed   by    Germany,   which  in  turn,  is    followed    by    Great 

Britain.     The  iron  industry  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the 

country.      While  a  large  amount  of  the  product  is  used  at  home,  a 

great  quantity  of  it  is  also  exported  to  the  countries  of  Europe, 

Asia  and  Africa.     These  exports  are  not  in  the  form  of  iron  and 

steel  as  they  come  from  the  smelting  furnace,  but  in  manufactured 

products  such  as  bridges,  rails   and   machinery.     Minnesota  and 

Michigan  lead  in  the  production  of  iron  ore,  while  Pennsylvania, 

Ohio  and  Illinois,  in  the  order  named,  lead  in  the  production  of 

manufactured  iron  and  steel. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  vein  of  ore?  Did  you  ever  see  a  rock  with  veins  in  it? 
How  can  you  tell  them  ? 

What  is  placer  mining?     By  what  other  methods  is  gold  mined? 

Which  is  the  more  useful  metal,  gold  or  iron?  What  reasons  can 
you  give  for  your  opinion? 

What  makes  copper  so  valuable?  What  metal  has  been  the  most 
recently  introduced  into  the  arts? 

Where  are  the  great  iron  and  steel  mills  of  the  country  located? 
What  are  the  reasons  for  their  location? 

What  is  steel?     In  what  respects  is  it  superior  to  iron? 

How  is  a  casting,  like  one  of  the  large  wheels  in  a  mowing  machine, 
made  ? 

Name  some  of  the  uses  for  which  iron  is  employed. 

What  has  made  the  United  States  the  leading  nation  in  the  pro- 
duction of  iron  and  steel? 


Chapter  X. 
MINERAL    FUELS. 

A  number  of  minerals  are  valuable  on  account  of  their  use  as 
fuel.  The  most  important  of  these  found  in  the  United  States  are 
coal,  petroleum  and  natural  gas. 

Coal  is  found  in  seams,  or  veins,  buried  in  the  earth.      It 

is  widely  distributed,  and  is  found  in  many  countries  of 

the  north  temperate  zone  and  in  some  portions  of  the  north  frigid 

zone,  particularly  Alaska.     South  of  the   Equator  it  is  known  to 

exist  in  Australia  and  South  Africa. 

In  the  lowlands,  in  cool,  temperate  climates,  we 
frequently  find  swamps  in  which,  for  many  years, 
mosses,  several  varieties  of  ferns,  rushes  and  reeds  have  been 
growing.  From  year  to  year,  these  partially  decay  at  the  bottom 
and  the  new  growth  of  the  succeeding  seasons  springs  from  the 
bed  formed  by  their  decaying  vegetation.  From  two  to  four  feet 
below  the  surface  a  formation  is  found  that  closely  resembles  the 
vegetable  mold  of  soils.  When  dried,  this  forms  excellent  fuel. 
and  is  known  as  peat.  Were  peat  subjected  to  great  pressure  and 
heat,  under  such  conditions  that  the  air  could  not  reach  it,  it  would 
be  changed  to  coal. 

Coal  has  been  formed  from  the  vegetation  of  the  past  ages  by 
processes  similar  to  those  described  in  the  formation  of  peat. 
This  vegetation  grew  many  centuries  before  any  animal  life  existed 
upon  the  earth,  and  was  much  more  luxuriant  than  vegetation  that 
we  find  at  the  present  day,  even  in  tropical  regions.  The 
evidences  found  in  coal  mines  tend  to  prove  that,  in  the  period  in 
which  these   plants  thrived,  ferns  and  club-mosses  grew  to  the  size 

\'>7 


128  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

of  trees,  and  that  these  forms  were  interspersed  with  several 
species  of  large  trees  entirely  different  from  anything  that  now 
exists  upon  the  earth.  These  luxuriant  growths  of  vegetation 
were,  by  movement  of  the  earth's  crust,  sunk  beneath  the  sea  and 
covered  with  mud,  which  in  time  became  hardened  into  rock. 
The  heat  produced  by  the  pressure  and  movement  of  the  rocks  in 
the  course  of  ages  changed  this  vegetation  into  coal.  The  plants 
were  so  completely  excluded  from  the  air,  and  were  subjected  to 
such  great  pressure,  that  the  coal  is  harder  and  much  more  perfect 
than  charcoal,  which  we  obtain  by  burning  wood,  or  other  sub- 
stances, in  closed  vessels. 

Some  time  after  the  first  growth  of  vegetation,  the  land  again 
rose  above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  another  growth  appeared, 
which,  in  its  turn,  was  also  buried  and  changed  to  coal.  In  some 
localities  this  process  was  repeated  a  number  of  times,  each  repeti- 
tion being  marked  by  a  vein  of  coal.  Consequently,  we  find  the 
veins  separated  from  each  other  by  layers  of  rock  varying  in  thick- 
ness from  a  few  inches  to  hundreds  of  feet.  As  a  general  thing 
the  coal  in  the  lowest  veins  is  the  hardest  and  of  the  best  quality, 
but  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Pennsylvania,  and  some  other 
portions  of  the  world,  the  veins  have  been  tilted  so  that  they  are 
now  found  in  an  oblique  position,  and  it  is  not  always  the  lowest 
vein  that  is  the  oldest.  In  the  more  level  regions  of  Ohio, 
Indiana  and  Illinois,  the  veins  are  found  in  much  the  same  posi- 
tion as  they  were  when  formed,  and  extend  in  a  horizontal 
direction. 

Some  of  the  veins  are  only  a  few  inches  thick,  while  others 
attain  a  thickness  of  from  ten  to  twelve  feet.  If  a  vein  is  less 
than  three  feet  thick,  it  can  not  be  profitably  worked  on  account 
of  the  expense  of  excavating  the  amount  of  rock  necessary  to  secure 
the  coal.  There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  coal,  indicated  by 
their  composition  and  degrees  of  hardness.     Those  of  the  latest 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  129 

formation  are  the  softest  and  least  valuable.  The  varieties  gener- 
ally known  are  lignite,  bituminous,  cannel  and  anthracite. 

Lignite  is  a  variety  of  soft  coal  that  is  less  valuable 
**  than  those  that  follow.     In  formation  it  is    between 

peat  and  soft  coal  ;  it  still  retains  the  reddish  hue,  like  peat,  and 
crumbles  readily.  Lignite  is  found  in  a  number  of  states  wesl 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  is  mined  to  some  extent  in  Colorado, 
the  Dakotas,  Montana,  -Wyoming  and  Oklahoma.  Since  these 
states  are  located  a  long  distance  from  the  bituminous  coal 
fields,  lignite  constitutes  a  valuable  and  convenient  source  of 
fuel.  It  has  never  been  used  in  engines,  or  for  manufacturing 
purposes  on  a  large  scale,  but  it  is  successful  as  a  heating 
fuel.  Lignite  mines  have  not  yet  been  developed  to  any 
extent,  but  as  the  demand  for  fuel  in  states  wrest  of  the  Missis- 
sippi increases,  these  mines  will  grow  in  importance  and  lignite 
will  supply  most  of  the  local  needs  for  domestic  and  other 
heating  purposes. 

Bituminous  coal  is  much  softer  than  anthracite, 
and  contains  more  oil  and  vegetable  matter  than 
carbon.  When  broken,  the  best  quality  leaves  a  glossy  or  jet-like 
surface.  It  burns  with  a  bright  flame  and  dense,  black  smoke, 
and  gives  off  an  intense  heat.  Bituminous  coal  is  much  more 
generally  distributed  than  anthracite.  In  the  United  States  it 
is  found  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Southern 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Missouri.  It  also  constitutes  a 
great  part  of  the  coal  mined  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  This  is  the  coal  generally  used  in  making  coke,  for 
smelting  iron  and  for  other  manufacturing  purposes. 

Cannel   coal  is  a  variety  of  bituminous   which   occurs 

only   in    small    quantities.     It    is    sometimes    used   for 

making    ornaments,     because,    when     polished,     it     very     closely 

resembles  jet.     It  is  also  highly  prized  for  burning  in  open  grates, 


130  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

as  it  burns  with  a  bright  flame  and  with  little  smoke.  When  a 
piece  is  ignited  at  the  end,  it  continues  to  burn  like  a  candle  until 
entirely  consumed  — a  peculiarity  from  which  this  variety  of  coal 
takes  its  name.  Cannel  coal  has  passed  through  the  bituminous 
stage  and  is  nearly  as  hard  as  anthracite. 

Anthracite   is   the  hardest  and  the    most  valuable 

Anthracite  coa]  found?  either  in  America  or  England.  Nature 
has  made  it  by  causing  soft  coal  to  be  subjected  to  such  heat  and 
pressure  that  most  of  the  oils  and  gases  have  been  driven  off,  leav- 
ing the  almost  pure  carbon.  It  has  a  black,  glossy  appearance, 
and  burns  with  but  little  flame  but  with  intense  heat.  On  account 
of  its  hardness  and  its  appearance  it  is  often  known  as  hard  coal, 
and  sometimes  as  stone  coal.  The  largest  mines  of  anthracite  now 
worked  are  found  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Pennsylvania  ;  small 
quantities  are   obtained  in  Nova  Scotia  and  England. 

The  layers  of  rock  in  which  coal  is  found  are 

Coal  Measures  known  as  coai  measures.  The  important  coal 
measures  in  the  United  States  are  found  in  Pennsylvania,  AVest 
Virginia,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois  and  Michigan.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  are  measures  of  lignite,  or  soft  coal,  found  in  nearly  all 
of  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in  small  patches  or  large  areas. 
Taken  together,  these  coal  measures  have  an  area  exceeding  four 
times  that  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  a  depth  which  has  not  yet 
been  ascertained,  as  the  veins  near  the  surface  will,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  be  the  only  ones  worked  for  years  to  come.  This 
shows  us  that  our  country  has  a  sufficient  supply  of  coal  to  last  its 
people  for  many  generations  and  for  all  purposes.  This  is  one  of 
the  greatest  sources  of  our  prosperity,  for  without  coal  it  would  be 
impossible  to  supply  fuel  to  many  portions  of  the  country,  and 
without  fuel  these  regions  could  not  be  inhabited.  Also,  as 
already  noted  in  the  chapter  on  iron,  coal  is  necessary  for  most 
manufacturing  purposes,  and  were  it  not  for  the  extensive  supply 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


131 


of  this  commodity  many  of  the  manufacturing  industries  would  be 
impracticable,  it"  not  entirely  impossible. 

Coal  is  mined  by  sinking  a  shaft  into  the  earth  until  it 
ini  =•  cuts  the  vein.  This  shaft  is  a  rectangular  excavation, 
usually  about  thirty  feel  long  and  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  wide. 
It  is  divided  into  four  compartments  by  vertical  partitions.  In 
Jwo  of  these  the  hoisting  cages,  which  are  nothing  more  than 
freight  elevators,  operate  ;  another  is  used  for  ventilating  the 
mine  ;  and  the  fourth  for  pipes  used  in  pumping  out  water,  for  elec- 
tric  wires   and    other    appliances 


United  States 


Eest  of  the  World 


that  may  he  needed  to  make  con- 
nection between  the  mine  and  the 
works  above. 

From  the  foot  of  the  shaft, 
galleries  are  excavated  in  all  di- 
rections. These  galleries  are  in- 
tersected at  frequent  intervals 
by  cross  galleries,  so  that  in  a 
COAL  mine  which  has  been  worked  to 

any  extent,  they  resemble  quite 
closely,  in  their  arrangement,  the  streets  of  a  city.  Tramways 
are  laid  in  the  main  galleries,  and  upon  these  cars  are  run,  either 
hauled  by  mules  or  electric  locomotives.  As  the  coal  is  broken 
from  the  veins,  it  is  loaded  upon  the  cars,  which  are  hauled  to  the 
foot  of  the  shaft  and  run  upon  the  hoisting  cages.  As  the  cars 
reach  the  surface,  they  are  run  from  the  hoisting  cages  to  a  plat- 
form, where  they  are  unloaded  by  being  dumped  into  a  chute, 
where  the  coal  is  separated  into  various  sizes.  Each  size  is  loaded 
separately,  either  upon  the  car  or  into  the  boat  as  the  location  of 
the  mines  requires,  and  sold  as  nut,  egg,  etc.,  according  to  its  size. 
Whenever  possible,  coal  is  transported  from 
ic  mines   by   boat,  but   in  all    other  cases  by 


Transportation    ., 


132 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


Germany 


railway,  and  is  taken  to  all  cities  and  towns  in  the  country.  Very 
much  of  the  local  expense  of  this  fuel  comes  from  the  freight,  and 
localities  far  from  the  coal  mines  pa}'  much  higher  prices  than 
those  near  by.  We  have  already  seen,  in  our  description  of  iron, 
that  the  transportation  of  coal  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  lakes 
constitutes  an  important  factor  in  the  traffic  of  the  ore  boats. 
Besides  these  lines  of  steamers,  there  are  numerous  others  that  are 
engaged  in  carrying  coal  from  Cleveland,  Erie  and  other  large 
cities,  to  the  Great  Lake  ports.  Most  of  this  coal  has  to  be  hauled 
to  the  wharf  by  train,  where  it  is  loaded  upon  the  boat,  from  which 

it  is  again  transferred  to 
the  docks,  to  be  taken  by 
train  to   its  final  destina- 
tion.    Yet,  notwithstand- 
ing all   of  this   handling, 
the    freight    by    water    is 
much     cheaper     than     it 
would    be    were   the    coal 
hauled  to    the   Northwest 
by  railway. 
A  great  deal  of  coal  in  West  Virginia,  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Ohio  is  manufactured  into  coke.     This  is  done 
by  burning  the  coal  in   kilns,  called  ovens.     The  air  is   partially 
excluded  so  that  only  the  gaseous  matter  is  burned,  leaving  a  kind 
of  charcoal,  which  constitutes  the  coke.     Coke  is  used  in  smelting 
iron  ore,  and  for  some  other  manufacturing  purposes,  and  to  some 
extent   for  heating.     The   coal   cannot   be   used   in  smelting  iron 
because  it  contains  sulphur,  which  is  injurious  to  the  metal. 

The  uses  of  coal  are  so  numerous  that  it  would  be  difficult 

Tjopc 

to  enumerate  them  all.  It  is  the  source  of  all  our  steam 
power ;  we  depend  upon  it  for  nearly  all  transportation,  both  by 
land  and  water,  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  and  of  other 


United  Kingdom 


United  States 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  133 

metals;  for  warming  our  houses  and  places  of  business,  and  for 
the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas.  The  use  of  coal  is  so  thor- 
oughly identified  with  our  life  and  industries  that,  were  its  supply 
to  cease,  the  busiuess  of  the  country  would  he  demoralized.  No 
more  impressive  lesson  of  the  relation  of  this  mineral  to  our  indus- 
trial life  could  well  be  given  than  that  resulting  from  the  shortage 
of  coal  in  the  winter  of  1902-03,  caused  by  the  great  coal  strike  in 
the  anthracite  mines  in  Pennsylvania.  New  York,  Boston,  and 
many  other  large  cities  in  the  Eastern  states,  which  depended 
almost  entirely  on  this  source  of  supply  for  their  coal,  were  obliged 
to  close  manufactories,  to  reduce  the  number  of  trains  upon  their 
railways,  and  in  many  other  ways  change  the  ordinary  run  of 
business,  while  many  people  were  deprived  of  their  usual  supply 
of  fuel  for  domestic  purposes. 

The  annual  output  of  the  United  States  is  about  225,000,000 
tons  of  2,240  pounds;  50,000,000  tons  of  this  are  anthracite,  and 
the  balance  bituminous.  The  United  States  produces  the  largest 
amount  of  coal  of  any  country  in  the  world.  It  is  closely  followed 
by  the  United  Kingdom,  which,  until  within  a  few  years,  was  the 
leading  producer.  Germany  produces  about  150,000,000  ton-, 
and  other  countries  only  small  quantities.  The  three  greatest  coal 
producing  countries  are  also  the  three  greatest  manufacturing 
countries. 

Next  to  coal,  petroleum  is  our   most    important 

PETROLEUM  ,   ,    .      '      .     ..  .       .      .. 

•    mineral    fuel.      It   is    found    in    reservoirs    in    the 

earth,  and  is  obtained  by  boring  wells.  The  name,  which  means 
rock  oil,  was  given  it  because  the  oil  was  obtained  by  boring  into 
soft  layers  of  rock,  which  are  saturated  with  oil.  So  far  as  known, 
petroleum  is  not  very  generally  distributed  over  the  earth.  The 
regions  in  which  it  is  found  are  known  as  the  oil  fields,  or  oil 
regions.  In  the  United  States  these  are  located  in  western  Penn- 
sylvania,  West  Virginia,  the  southern  part  of  Ohio,  portions  of 


134  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

Indiana,  in  Colorado,  southern  California,  Texas  and  Kansas. 
Outside  of  the  United  States  Russia  is  the  only  country  in  which 
petroleum  is  found  in  large  quantities,  though  wells  of  consider- 
able importance  have  recently  been  sunk  on  the  island  of  Java. 
The  Russian  oil  fields  are  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Petroleum  has  come  into  use  within  the  last  half  cen- 
y  tury.  While  the  existence  of  this  oil  was  known  to 
the  Indians  for  hundreds  of  years,  and  it  was  used  by  them  as  a 
medicine,  it  was  not  discovered  in  large  quantities  until  1859.  In 
that  year  Col.  E.  L.  Drake  of  Titusville,  Pa.,  bored  a  well  in 
search  for  oil  which  he  expected  to  use  in  the  manufacture  of  a 
remedy  for  rheumatism  that  was  placed  upon  the  market  as  "  Sen- 
eca Oil."  His  experiment  was  the  first  act  in  the  development 
of  an  industry  that  has  become  one  of  great  importance.  After 
sinking  the  well  sixty  feet,  Colonel  Drake  struck  a  flow  of  oil 
which  immediately  rose  to  the  surface.  The  first  year,  this  well 
yielded  2000  barrels.  The  year  following  two  other  wells  were 
sunk  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  and  the  entire  yield  amounted  to 
500,000  barrels.  It  was  at  once  seen  that  there  was  an  abundance 
of  oil,  and  that  it  could  be  supplied  in  such  quantities  as  to  make 
it  available  for  light  and  fuel.  Companies  immediately  sprang  up, 
and  within  the  next  five  years,  what  is  known  as  the  oil  region  of 
Pennsylvania  became  dotted  with  derricks  and  perforated  with 
wells.  The  industry  continued  to  increase  until  now  the  annual 
output  amounts  to  about  70,000,000  barrels,  of  42  gallons  each. 

As  it  comes  from  the  well,  the  oil  is  known  as  crude 
enning"  petroleum.  It  is  usually  of  a  dark  brown  color, 
sometimes  almost  black.  It  emits  a  very  disagreeable  odor,  and 
contains  a  number  of  exceedingly  volatile  liquids.  In  this  condi- 
tion it  can  be  used  only  for  fuel.  Since  its  most  extensive  use  is 
for  illuminating  purposes,  most  of  the  crude  petroleum  is  refined 
before  being  placed  on  the  market,     Refining  consists  of  distilling 


COMMERCE    AND    INDTSTRY 


1 35 


the  oil  at  a  very  low  temperature  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  other 
chemicals,  so  as  to  separate  these  volatile  liquids  from  each  other 
and  from  the  heavier  liquids  used  only  for  illuminating  purposes. 
The  crude  oil  is  run  into  steel  tanks  having  a  capacity  of  1000  to 
1200  barrels,  and  allowed  to  distil  over  a  slow  fire.  The  most 
volatile  liquids,  naptha,  gasolene  and  benzine,  pass  off  first,  and 
are  followed  by  kerosene.     This  is  often  further  purified  by  being 


OIL  WELL  AND   STORAGE  TANKS 

re-distilled  and  washed,  to  remove  whatever  volatile  substances 
escaped  the  first  distillation.  After  the  kerosene  has  all  been 
drawn  oil*  a  dark  colored  liquid  remains  in  the  tank.  By  further 
distillation  this  yields  paraffin,  which  resembles  a  white  wax,  and  a 
lubricating  oil.  The  refuse  of  the  tank  contains  more  or  less  coal 
tar,  from  which  some  of  our  most  beautiful  dyes  are  obtained. 

The  uses  of  most  of  the  petroleum  products  are  very  familiar, 


136  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

Gasolene  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  an  illuminating  gas,  and  as 
a  fuel  in  gasolene  stoves  and  gas  engines.  Benzine  is  used  in 
dissolving  gums,  in  the  mixing  of  paints,  and  for  laboratory  pur- 
poses. Naptha  has  a  similar  use,  and  is  also  extensively  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  varnish.  Kerosene  is  the  most  valuable 
product  of  the  petroleum  distillation,  and  is  obtained  in  larger 
quantities  than  the  others.  Except  in  large  cities,  it  has  become 
the  universal  illuminant  for  dwellings,  parks,  buildings,  and  in 
some  places,  for  streets.  It  has  the  advantage  of  giving  a  strong, 
clear  light,  and  being  comparatively  inexpensive. 

Crude  petroleum  is  used  as  a  fuel  in  localities  where  coal  and 
wood  do  not  occur.  For  this  reason  the  discovery  of  oil  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Texas  has  been  of  great  advantage  to  the  people  of 
those  regions.  The  oil  from  these  fields  is  not  suitable  for  refining, 
and  is  extensively  used,  not  only  for  heating  and  cooking  pur- 
poses, but  also  as  a  fuel  in  locomotives  and  for  driving  stationary 
engines.  This  use  of  petroleum  has  greatly  facilitated  transpor- 
tation on  several  lines  of  railway  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and 
southern  California. 

The  growth  of  the  oil  industry  has  led  to 
Transportation  many  new  developments  in  the  methods  of 
transportation.  At  first  it  was  carried  from  the  wells  in  barrels, 
which  were  hauled  on  wagons  to  the  nearest  railway  station  or 
refinery,  but  the  poor  roads  made  this  method  almost  impracticable. 
Whenever  possible,  the  oil  was  loaded  onto  boats,  some  of  which 
had  tanks  constructed  for  the  purpose,  while  others  received  the 
oil  in  barrels.  These  were  floated  down  the  rivers  to  the  point  of 
destination  or  of  trans-shipment,  but  the  railway  soon  became  the 
most  important  factor  in  the  transportation.  At  first  the  barrels 
were  loaded  on  the  cars,  but  in  a  short  time  tank  cars,  constructed 
especially  for  the  purpose,  came  into  use.  These  cars  are  now 
familiar  in  all  parts  of  the  country.     The  tanks  resemble  a  huge 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY  137 

steam  boiler  with  a  dome,  and  have  a  rapacity  of  several  hundred 
barrels.  Oil  receiving  stations  are  now  established  in  every  large 
town.  These  stations  contain  lam*'  steel  tanks  into  which  the  oil 
is  unloaded  from  the  ears,  and  from  which  it  is  distributed  to 
merchants  in  tank  wagons.  From  the  merchants  it  reaches  the 
consumer. 

But  in  the  large  oil  centers,  pipe  Tines  have  since  taken  the 
place  of  cars.  These  lines  are  laid  similar  to  gas  or  water  pipe 
systems.  Small  pipes  run  from  each  well  to  large  mains  which 
finally  unite  into  one  large  line  that  leads  from  the  oil  fields  to 
the  refinery.  The  pipes  are  made  of  steel  and  are  of  great 
strength.  By  their  use,  oil  can  be  conveyed  hundreds  of  miles 
without  handling.  Pipe  lines  extend  from  the  oil  fields  in  Penn- 
sylvania to  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Cleveland,  Baltimore  and  New 
York  City.  Another  long  line  is  one  reaching  from  Kokomo, 
Indiana,  to  Chicago.  Pumping  stations  are  established  at  frequent 
intervals,  by  the  use  of  which  the  oil  is  forced  along  on  its  journey. 

The  Russian  field  produces  more  crude  petroleum  in  a  year 
than  those  of  the  United  States,  its  output  being  about  N^,(»00,000 
barrels.  These  twTo  countries  produce  ninety-three  per  cent  of  the 
world's  product,  but  the  United  States  exceeds  all  other  countries 
in  its  manufacture  of  petroleum  products.  In  addition  to  those 
consumed  at  home,  it  exports  large  quantities  to  the  countries  of 
Europe.  The  exported  product  crosses  the  ocean  in  tank  steamers 
constructed  especially  for  this  trade. 

Another  important  mineral  fuel  is  natural  gas. 

NATURAL   GAS     T1  .     .  \,     ,        ,   .     ..  ,       .... 

this    is   usually  found    m  the   same    localities  as 

petroleum.     The  portions  of  the  United  States  which   have  been 

able  to  make  profitable  use  of  this  fuel  are  Western  Pennsylvania, 

especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Pittsburg,  some   localities  in   Southern 

Ohio,  and  in  the  central  part  of  Indiana.      The  gas  is  obtained  by 

sinking  wells,  the  same  as  for  petroleum.      In  some  instances,  it  is 


138  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

found  confined  under  very  great  pressure,  which,  when  piped, 
furnishes  a  steady  flow  that,  when  ignited,  gives  a  great  heat, 
though  it  is  not  very  good  for  illuminating  purposes. 

Natural  gas  is  an  ideal  fuel  for  the  manufacture  of  glass  or  the 
smelting  of  iron  or  steel,  as  it  contains  no  sulphur  or  other 
impurities  that  will  injure  the  product.  For  this  reason,  many 
glass  factories  and  iron  works  have  moved  into  the  natural  gas 
belt.  But  the  extensive  use  of  the  gas  has  caused  the  pressure  to 
decrease  rapidly  for  the  last  few  years,  and  it  seems  quite  evident 
that  the  supply  is  becoming  exhausted.  The  gas  has  been  piped, 
in  a  manner  similar  to  petroleum,  as  far  as  Chicago,  where  it  is 
used  for  heating  purposes.  Natural  gas  differs  commercially  from 
almost  every  other  commodity  in  that  it  is  not  transported  any 
distance  from  the  locality  in  which  it  is  found. 

QUESTIONS. 

Examine  a  piece  of  charcoal.  How  does  it  differ  in  structure  and 
hardness  from  anthracite?     From  bituminous  coal? 

From  what  region  is  the  coal  used  in  your  locality  obtained? 

Why  is  coal  more  expensive  in  Minnesota  than  in  Illinois  ? 

Where  are  the  great  coal  docks  of  the  United  States  located?  Give 
the  reason  for  their  location. 

What  products  are  obtained  from  petroleum?  Which  of  these  is 
the  most  valuable  ? 

What  is  meant  by  "refining"  petroleum?  Where  are  the  great 
refineries  located? 

How  can  you  account  for  the  rapid  growth  of  the  petroleum  industry  ? 


Chapter  XI. 
ROCK    AND    SOIL   PRODUCTS. 

A  number  of  minerals  on  or  near  the  .surface  of  the  land,  are 

important  on  account  of  their  use  as  constructive  material.      The 

most  valuable  of  these  are  stone,  clay,  sand  and  cement. 

The  term   building   stone   may   be   applied   to   any 

stone  that  can  he  used  in  the  erection  of  buildings 
STONF 

or  other  structures.     The  most  important   varieties 

are  limestone,  marble,  granite,  sandstone  and  slate. 

Limestone  is  one  of  the  most  common  rocks,  and 
occurs  in  a  number  of  forms.  It  is  hard  and 
strong,  and  on  account  of  its  wide  distribution,  can  usually  be 
obtained  near  the  place  where  it  is  wanted,  thus  saving  great 
expense  in  transportation.  It  is  not  a  decorative  stone,  and  can 
only  be  used  for  rough  work,  such  as  basement  walls  and  the 
outside  walls  of  some  large  buildings.  Some  varieties  are  exten- 
sively used  in  the  manufacture  of  quicklime,  which  in  turn  is  used 
for  making  mortar  and  other  kinds  of  cement. 

Marble  is  a  crystallized  limestone  which  has  been 
changed  and  purified  by  heat  after  the  rock  was 
formed.  It  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  Vermont,  Georgia, 
Tennessee,  Alaska,  and  Colorado.  There  are  many  varieties 
of  marble,  each  of  which  has  its  peculiar  color  and  degree  of 
hardness.  These  adapt  marble  to  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 
The  stone  is  easily  worked,  takes  a  high  polish,  and  when  pro- 
tected from  the  weather  is  very  durable.  Its  former  use  in  this 
country  was  confined  almost  exclusively  to  headstones  and  statuary, 
but  since  it  has  been  quarried  on  such  a  large  scale  as  it   now  is, 

139 


MAKBLE  QUARRY    RUTLAND,  VT. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  Ml 

the  uses  have  been  widely  extended.  We  now  find  marble 
employed  for  the  walls  of  buildings,  and  specially  for  finishing 
interiors  of  public  buildings,  hotels  and  large  city  block-. 

Granite  is  the  hardest  and  strongest  of  all  the  building 
branite  stones.  ]t  varies  in  color  from  nearly  white  to  a  very 
dark  gray,  which  is  almost  a  black.  Some  of  the  best  granite  has 
a  reddish  color.  This  rock  occur-  in  many  places  but  is  extensively 
worked  in  the  New  England  states  and  Minnesota.  It  take-  a 
high  polish,  and  withstands  the  action  of  the  weather  better  than 
marble.  For  this  reason  it  is  now  quite  extensively  used  for  head- 
stones and  statuary  that  is  to  be  placed  in  public  parks.  Granite 
is  especially  valuable  as  a  building  stone  where  great  strength  is 
required,  as  in  the  piers  of  railway  bridges,  and  for  the  foundations 
and  walls  of  large  buildings. 

As  its  name  implies,  this  rock  consists  of  sand, 
Sandstone  cementeti  together  by  some  other  material.  A-  a 
building  stone,  its  use  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  walls  of 
dwellings  and  some  other  small  structures  in  which  artistic  appear- 
ance is  desirable.  It  is  not  a  strong  rock,  and  can  not  be  suc- 
cessfully used  in  many  places  where  granite  and  limestone  are 
employed. 

Slate   is  a   clay  rock,  which  occurs   in   thin   layer-.      <  >n 

e      account  of  its  .structure,  it  is  easily  split   into  very  thin 

slabs.       The    most   extensive    quarries    are    in    Pennsylvania   and 

Vermont.     Shite  is  used  for  covering  roofs,  for  finishing  interiors 

and  for  making  laundry-tubs,  sinks  and  blackboards. 

Clay  is  a  very  common  mineral  and  is  found  in  almost 
av  every  locality.  When  dry,  it  is  quite  hard,  but  when 
moist  it  becomes  plastic;  and  can  be  easily  worked,  cither  with 
tools  or  with  the  hand.  It  is  not  used  alone  as  a  building  mate- 
rial, but,  when  combined  with  a  certain  proportion  of  -and.  it 
constitutes  the  material  from  which  brick  and  tile  are  made. 


14*2  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

In  the  manufacture  of  brick,  the  clay  and  sand  are  ground 
with  water  to  make  the  mixture  plastic.  It  is  then  pressed  into 
molds,  which  form  the  brick.  From  the  molds,  these  are  carried 
to  the  drying-shed,  where  they  remain  for  a  short  time  to  become 
hardened.  They  are  then  placed  in  large  kilns,  where  the  layers 
of  brick  are  so  arranged  that  the  fire  can  pass  between  them  in  such 


A  GRANITE  QUARRY 

a  way  as  to  heat  all  the  brick  evenly.  The  brick  is  then  burned 
for  two  or  three  days,  being  heated  to  redness.  By  this  process, 
the  sand  and  clay  are  hardened,  so  that  when  cold  the  brick  is 
as  hard  and  strong  as  many  varieties  of  building  stone.  The 
largest  brick  works  in  the  United  States  are  along  the  Hudson 
River ;    but    the    industry   is   very    generally   scattered    over   the 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  1  |:; 

Central  and  Western  States,  where  brick  is  especially  valuable 
because  of  the  lack  of  suitable  building  stone.  The  entire  industry 
in  the  United  States  amounts  to  about  $95,500,000  a  year. 

Other  clay  products  of  importance  are  tile,  terra-cotta —  used 
for  ornamental  work  in  buildings  —  and  pottery,  which  is  manu- 
factured from  a  tine  variety  of  clay,  but  can  not  be  considered  as 
building  material.  The  pottery  industry  in  the  United  States 
amounts  to  about  $17,000,000  a  year. 

Sand  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  grains  of  quartz, 
which,  by  the  action  of  wind  and  water,  have  been  sepa- 
rated from   solid  rock.      It  is  particularly  valuable  for  the   manu- 
facture of  brick,  tile  and  mortar  and  cement. 

Numerous  kinds  of  cement  are  on  the  market.     Nearly 

CEMENT       ,,     ...  i    i      fi  •    i-         f 

all  ot  them  are  made  by  the  grinding  oi  some  variety 

of  limestone  with  another  rock  and  burning  the  mixture.  Hydrau- 
lic cements  will  harden  under  water  and  are  used  in  cementing 
cisterns  and  stones  in  the  piers  of  bridges  and  other  structures 
exposed  to  water.  When  mixed  with  crushed  stone  and  sand, 
cement  forms  concrete,  which  is  extensively  used  in  constructing  the 
foundations  of  heavy  buildings  and  bridges  and  lor  laying  sidewalks. 
The  industries  arising  from  the  use  of  these  materials  are 
extensive  and  important.  From  the  nature  of  the  material  they 
are  also  decidedly  local  in  character.  All  of  this  raw  material,  on 
account  of  the  expense  of  transportation,  must  be  worked  in  its 
immediate  locality  ;  therefore,  we  find  brick  yards  where  clay  i^ 
abundant,  and  works  for  cutting  and  finishing  stone  ;it,  or  near, 
the  quarries,  as  the  finished  product  can  be  transported  at  much 
less  expense  than  the  raw  material. 

Salt  is  especially  important,  because  it    i>  tl nly  min- 
eral   used    as   an   article    of   food.      It    is    obtained    by 
evaporating  the  water  of  the  sea  or  salt   lakes,  or  from  salt  springs 
and  wells,  and   by  mining,  when  it  occurs  in   deposits  in  the  earth. 


144  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

Most  of  the  salt  manufactured  in  the  United  States  is  obtained 
from  salt  wells.  These  wells  may  be  natural  or  artificial.  They 
are  natural  when  the  salt  water  is  found  in  the  earth  and  can  be 
obtained  simply  by  pumping.  They  are  artificial  when  the  salt 
water  is  procured  by  pouring  fresh  water  into  the  well  and  allowing 
it  to  dissolve  the  salt  from  the  vein  in  the  earth  and  then  pumping 
it  out.  Salt  works  in  the  United  States  are  found  at  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  and  at  numerous  places  in  Michigan.  Nearly  all  the  salt 
manufactured  at  these  places  is  of  a  high  grade  and  is  used  for 
table  and  dairy  purposes.  Salt  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
various  compounds  of  soda  and  for  glazing  a  cheap  quality  of 
pottery  ware. 

Graphite,  or    black    lead,  is    a  variety  of  carbon. 
GRAPHITE      The  |argest  dep0Sits  in  the  United  States  are  in  the 

vicinity  of  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  where  it  is  quite  extensively 
mined.  Graphite  is  a  very  valuable  mineral  and  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  lead  pencils  and  crucibles,  for  lubricating  machinery 
and  for  various  kinds  of  polish. 

The  combined  mineral  industries  of  the  country  rank,  in 
importance,  next  to  those  of  agriculture.  As  we  have  seen,  they 
are  widely  distributed  and  give  rise  to  a  large  number  of  occupa- 
tions. On  this  account,  it  is  impossible  to  separate  some  of  them 
from  manufacturing  industries. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  rocks  in  your  vicinity  are  used  for  building  or  other  purposes? 
Make  a  collection  of  specimens  of  the  different  minerals  in  your  town  or 
county. 

What  are  some  of  the  articles  made  from  clay?  Why  are  bricks  and 
pottery  "  burned"? 

Name  the  different  purposes  for  which  you  have  seen  marble 
employed. 

Why  does  the  United  States  quarry  so  much  more  marble  than  Italy? 

What  are  the  different  purposes  for  which  salt  is  used  ? 


Chapter  XII. 

MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

Next   to  agriculture,  manufactures  are  the  most 

IMPORTANCE  ..  ,    °    ,...       .  t     . 

essential  condition  to  a  country  s  prosperity,  and 

the  position  of  a  nation  in  the  scale  of  civilization  is  closely  related 
to  the  extent  and  variety  of  its  manufacturing  industries.  These 
industries  make  use  of  the  natural  products  of  a  country.  Before 
these  materials  are  manufactured,  they  are  known  as  raw  material. 
Timber,  iron-ore,  corn  and  stone  are  good  illustrations. 

Manufactures  increase  the  wealth  of  a  country  by  turning  out 
products  that  are  far  more  valuable  than  the  raw  material.  This 
value  is  added  almost  entirely  by  the  labor  expended  in  trans- 
forming this  material  into  the  manufactured  product.  The  goods 
of  the  factory  are  also  sold  at  a  much  greater  profit  than  the  prod- 
ucts of  nature.  In  addition  to  this,  manufactures  give  rise  to  a 
great  many  occupations,  and  among  these  each  one  can  find  an 
opportunity  to  do  that  for  which  he  is  best  suited.  This  enables 
men  to  produce  more  than  they  could  if  all  had  to  work  at  the 
same  occupation,  for  each  succeeds  best  by  following  the  vocation 
suited  to  his  tastes.  Manufactures  also  increase  the  demand  for 
goods.  The  great  number  of  callings  in  a  manufacturing  com- 
munity multiplies  wants.  The  blacksmith  needs  tools  and  raw 
material  of  one  sort ;  the  carpenter  those  which  are  not  suited  to 
the  blacksmith,  and  the  weaver  still  others,  so  that  in  order  to  supply 
the  needs  of  all,  a  great  variety  of  commodities  becomes  necessary. 

The  location  of  manufacturing  industries   is  deter- 
LOCATION  .        ..      ,         ,      ,  ,       .  .... 

mined   quite    largely    by    geographical     conditions. 

The  most  important  of  these  are  the  presence  or  proximity  of  raw 

145 


146  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

material,  available  power,  good  transportation  facilities  and  an 
accessible  market  for  the  manufactured  articles.  The  first  cause  is 
of  such  nature  that  it  can  be,  and  often  is,  overlooked,  as  raw 
material  is  frequently  transported  a  long  distance  before  it  is  con- 
verted into  the  manufactured  product. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  country  water  power  was 
universally  employed  for  propelling  machinery,  and  we 
find  the  manufacturing  industries  located  in  New  England  and  the 
North  Atlantic  States,  where  the  numerous  small  mountain  streams 
furnished  an  abundance  of  power.  Here  were  erected  the  first 
cotton  mills,  and  cotton  was  brought  to  them  from  the  South. 
Here  also  were  established  the  first  smelting  furnaces  for  the 
reduction  of  iron-ore,  but  both  the  ore  and  the  fuel  were  found 
near  at  hand. 

The  advent  of  the  steam  engine  removed  in  a 
measure  the  necessity  of  locating  factories  where 
water  power  could  be  obtained.  The  only  disadvantage  in  the  use 
of  steam  is  that  it  is  more  expensive  than  water,  yet  it  often 
happens  that  the  expense  of  fuel  is  less  than  the  difference  in  the 
cost  of  the  transportation  of  the  raw  material  and  the  manufactured 
product.  For  this  reason  we  find  steam  sawmills  erected  in  or 
near  the  lumber  camps,  and  flour  mills  on  the  prairies  of  the  wheat 
growing  states.  The  use  of  steam  power  has  also  made  it  possible 
to  locate  manufactories  in  and  near  the  great  centers  of  trade, 
where  they  can  secure  the  advantage  of  the  means  of  transportation 
which  are  found  in  such  centers.  The  effect  ot  steam  as  a  motive 
power  has  been  to  establish  large  factories  through  the  Central  and 
Western  States  which  by  their  output  now  have  a  strong  influence 
upon  the  manufactures  of  the  older  states.  While  these  states 
are  still  the  leading  manufacturing  centers  of  the  country  their 
relative  importance  is  very  much  less  than  it  was  a  decade  or 
more  a<ro. 


COMMERCE    AND    [NDUSTRY  117 

The  application  of  electricity  1<>  tin-  operation 

Electric  Power       ,■         ,  ,  ,1,11,1 

ot  machinery  has  greatly  extended  the  possi- 
bility of  placing  factories  wherever  their  locution  would  be  most 
advantageous.  It  has  also  brought  into  use  the  water  power  of 
hundreds  of  streams  that  before  were  entirely  useless,  because 
their  location  was  surh  that  no  factories  could  be  erected  on  or 
near  them.  Now,  by  means  of  electric  cables  power  generated  by 
mountain  streams  may  be  applied  to  the  operation  of  motor-  -core-. 
and  even  hundreds,  of  miles  away. 

The  most  noted  illustration  of  such  application  of  power 
transmitted  over  a  long  distance  is  found  in  the  works  of  the  Bay 
County  Power  Company  of  California.  This  company  placed  a 
dam  across  the  Uba  River  in  the  Siena  Nevada  .Mountains  and 
secured  a  fall  of  71.")  feet.  The  current  furnished  by  their 
dynamos  is  used  in  Oakland,  142  miles  distant,  and  in  Stockton, 
which  is  218  miles  away  ;  while  still  another  line  reaches  San 
Francisco,  after  traversing  a  route  222  miles  in  length.  In  each 
of  these  cities  the  electric  current  is  applied  to  operate  the  street 
cars  and  for  driving  the  electric  motors  in  numerous  factories. 
The  best  example  of  the  transmission  of  power  on  a  large  scale  is 
that  at  Niagara,  where  the  powerful  current  is  used  to  manufacture 
electricity,  which  furnishes  electric  light  and  motor  power  in 
Buffalo  and  a  number  of  other  cities  in  New  York  State. 

Transportation   is  a   very   important   factor  in 
^  determining  the   location  of  the  manufactory, 

as  the  expense  of  freight  greatly  reduces  profit-.  Transportation 
by  water  is  cheaper  than  that  by  railway  ;  therefore,  the  manufac- 
turers of  heavy  wares  endeavor,  as  far  as  possible,  to  locate  where 
they  can  ship  their  products  by  water  routes;  hence,  we  find  that 
many  ports  on  sea,  lake  and  river  have  become  important  manufac- 
turing centers.  The  railways  have  made  inland  transportation  com- 
paratively  cheap,  and  many   factories  are  established  in  a  locality 


148  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

where  their  product  is  used.  The  great  agricultural  implement 
factories  of  Chicago,  and  the  furniture  and  piano  factories  found 
in  numerous  western  states,  are  good  examples  of  such  location. 

The  rapid  extension  of  electric  railways  is  also  advantageous 
to  small  factories  in  country  towns,  since  these  railways  afford 
a  cheap  and  convenient  means  of  transportation  of  both  the  raw 
material  and  the  manufactured  product.  These  roads  seem  des- 
tined in  the  near  future  to  exert  considerable  influence  in  locating 
manufactories. 

The  most  important  economic  reasons  in  determining  a  loca- 
tion are  an  early  beginning  and  a  local  demand  for  the  product. 
The  New  England  factories  obtained  their  hold  upon  the  country 
largely  because  they  were  the  first  of  their  kind.  While,  in  the 
beginning,  their  output  supplied  only  the  local  demand,  yet,  in  a 
short  time,  they  were  enabled  to  supply  the  demands  of  a  much 
larger  territory,  and  by  being  in  condition  to  take  advantage  of 
these  demands  they  obtained  a  hold  upon  the  country,  which 
has  made  it  impossible  for  later  establishments  of  the  same  sort 
to  displace  their  goods. 

The  local  demand  for  boots  and  shoes,  flour,  furniture  and 
many  other  common  articles,  is  the  principal  cause  for  the  erection 
of  so  many  factories  in  the  West  and  Northwest,  and  most  of  these 
are  doing  a  thriving  business. 

„.  .  ,ttt„  .  „mxT~,»T~     Most  cities  have  been  built  up  around  man- 
MANUFACTURING       .  .    .     x  .  .       *\     ,  c 

utacturing  industries,  or  have  had  manufac- 
tories added  after  they  were  established. 
The  beginning  of  Minneapolis  was  in  the  erection  of  sawmills  and 
grist-mills.  At  the  time  the  first  mills  were  erected,  the  lumber 
and  the  water  power  were  near  each  other.  As  the  Northwest 
became  settled,  the  demand  for  manufactured  products  increased, 
and  the  city  added  steam  power  to  her  water  power  and  continued 
to  increase  her  mills  until  she  became  the  largest  flour  producing 


COMMERCE    AX,)    INDUSTRY 


141) 


city  of  the  world.  The  importance  of  Lowell,  Fall  River,  and 
New  Bedford,  M;t>s.,  is  due  almost  entirely  to  their  cotton  mills. 
This  is  equally  true  of  many  other  towns  in  New  England  and 
New  York;  while  Birmingham,  Ala.,  has  been  developed  into  a 
thriving  city  within  the  last  few  years  on  account  of  its  favorable 
location  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel. 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  manufacturing  country  of  the 
world.  The  value  of  her  manufactured  products  exceeds  $13,000,- 
•  MHi.oOO  a  year,  which  is  more  than  twice  the  value  of  the  manu- 
factures of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  country  is  also  noted  for 
the  variety  of  its  manufactures.  This  is  caused  by  our  great 
extent  of  territory,  difference  in  climate  and  the  diverse  local  con- 
ditions which  adapt  so  many  local- 


Rest  of  the  Woi-i.i 


MASUKACI  I    RES 


ities  to  special  lines  of  manufac- 
ture. In  addition  to  this,  the 
inventive  genius  of  the  American 

people,  and  their  high  standard 
of  living  have  created  demands 
for  a  great  variety  of  products. 
About  seven-tenths  of  our  manu- 
factures are  consumed  at  home, 
leaving  only  a  small  portion  for 
export. 
With  the  increase  in  population  it  is  probable  that  a  still 
.arger  proportion  of  our  manufactures  will  be  required  for  home 
consumption.  If  this  should  be  the  case,  our  exports  would  fall 
off.  However,  this  condition  of  affairs  would  not  necessarily 
indicate  a  lack  of  national  prosperity.  Every  country  makes  Buch 
uses  of  its  products  as  are  best  suited  to  its  economic  conditions, 
and  the  amount  of  exports  is  not  always  a  tine  indication  of  a 
country's  prosperity. 


150  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

QUESTIONS. 

Show  bow  manufactures  increase  the  wealth  of  a  country. 

What  effect  has  the  development  of  electric  power  had  upon  the  loca- 
tion of  manuf acturies ?     Is  this  beneficial?     Why? 

Why  were  the  first  manufacturing  centers  located  in  the  New  England 
and  the  Eastern  States? 

Why  was  the  erection  of  cotton  mills  in  the  Southern  States  so  long 
delayed  ? 

What  causes  make  the  cities  located  on  the  Great  Lakes  important 
manufacturing  centers? 

What  causes  have  combined  to  make  the  United  States  such  an 
important  manufacturing  country? 


Chapter    XIII. 
TEXTILE   FABRICS. 

Clothing  is  necessary  to  life  and  comfort,  and  the  farther  a 
people  are  removed  from  the  equator,  the  more  indispensable  it 
becomes.  AVe  use  clothing  for  three  purposes  :  decency,  comfort 
and  ornament,  and  because  they  are  so  intimately  associated  with 
our  welfare,  the  products  of  the  textile  industry  maintain  an  espe- 
cially intimate  relation  to  us. 

The  manufacture  of  textiles  is  one  of  the  most 
IMPORTANCE     .  .     .     .    ,     ,  .         e    ,,  ,  .    ,. 

important    industries    ot    the    country    and    the 

world,  and  it  seems  eminently  fitting  that  the  people  who  make 

the  wisest  use  of  the  textile  fabrics  should  become  the  most  skilful 

in  their  production.     These  are  the  people  of  the  temperate  zones, 

and  the  nations  of  the  north  temperate  zone  now  practically  supply 

the  fabrics  for  the  world. 

There  are  various  branches  of  the  textile  industry,  such  as  the 

manufacture  of  yarns,  knit  goods  and   woven  goods;   and   to  these 

must  be    added  the    art    of  dyeing,    which   is    a    feature  of  each 

branch.      The  fibers  used  in  the   United  States  are,  in  the  order  of 

their   importance1  :    cotton,   wool,   silk,   flax    and    hemp.      In   some 

fabrics  we  find   two   or  more   of  these   fibers   mixed.     The   most 

common  mixture  is  that  of  cotton  with  wool.      Silk   is  also  mixed 

with  wool,  and  with  cotton,  and,  occasionally,  with  linen.     These 

mixtures    enable,  the    manufacturer   to    produce    a    much    larger 

variety  of  fabrics  than  he  could  by  using  only  one   kind  of  fiber. 

This  variety  is  also  increased  by  the  degree  of  fineness  of  the  work 

and  by  various  methods  of  weaving  and  finishing  the  cloth. 

151 


152  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

The  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics  in  America  befiran 
HISTORY 

with  the  settlement  of  the  colonies.     Every  household 

had  ijs  spinning-wheel  and  hand-loom,  and  nearly  every  farmer 
raised  sheep  and  flax,  and  it  was  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  women 
in  each  family  to  manufacture  the  cloth  required  for  clothing  and 
bedding.  Since  all  this  work  had  to  be  performed  b}^  hand  labor, 
and  with  the  crudest  machinery,  the  task  was  no  light  one.  When 
the  population  had  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause  numer- 
ous towns  to  spring  into  existence,  small  factories  were  erected, 
which,  in  a  measure,  relieved  the  women  from  manufacturing 
cloth,  though,  in  the  farming  communities,  this  practice  continued 
for  many  years  after  the  Revolutionary  War. 

While  in  the  beginning  simple  machinery  operated  by  hand 
power  made  it  possible  for  any  one  to  engage  in  the  manufacture 
of  yarn  or  clothing,  with  the  advent  of  the  factory  more  complex 
machinery  was  introduced.  This  required  an  investment  of  capi- 
tal, and  as  the  industry  grew  we  find  that  factories  increased  in 
size  and  capital  became  more  and  more  concentrated,  until  the 
textile  industry  was  located  in  a  few  large  centers  of  the  New 
England  States,  the  most  important  being  Lowell,  Fall  River, 
and  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts  ;  Nashua  and  Manchester,  New 
Hampshire,  and  some  towns  in  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  the  United  States  has 
made  much  greater  progress  than  other  countries  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  textiles,  though  she  does  not  lead  the  world  in  her  output 
of  this  product.  Some  of  the  most  delicate  and  ingenious 
machinery  employed  in  the  production  of  the  finest  and  most 
beautiful  fabrics  is  the  product  of  American  ingenuity,  while 
American  methods  of  management  have  made  it  possible  to  operate 
the  large  factories  in  this  country  on  such  plans  as  to  produce 
better  results  than  have  been  secured  in  the  countries  of  Europe. 

The  development  of  the  textile  industry  is  due  to  four  inven- 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  153 

tions  :  The  spinning-jenny  by  Hargreaves;  the  water  frame  by 
Arkwright;  the  mule-jenny,  which  was  a  combination  of  the 
spinning-jenny  and  the  water  frame,  by  Richard  Compton  ;  and 
the  power-loom  by  Edmund  Cartwright.  All  of  these  inventions 
originated  in  England  and  were  produced  by  English  workmen. 
Each  made  it  possible  tor  one  operator  to  do  the  work  that  it  would 
require  scores  of  persons  to  perform  by  hand  labor.  The  first  of 
these  inventions  came  into  use  in  1767,  and  the  last  in  1785. 
Thus  within  a  period  of  eighteen  years  the  textile  industry  of 
England   was   revolutionized   by   the   ingenuity  of  her  workmen. 

The  increase  in  cotton  manufacture,  resulting  from  these  inven- 
tions, created  such  a  demand  for  cotton  that  it  was  impossible  for 
the  planters  to  raise  and  prepare  a  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the 
market.  This  difficulty  was  met  by  the  American  invention  of  the 
cotton-gin,  by  Eli  Whitney,  in  17!>2.  This  has  already  been 
described  in  the  chapter  on  cotton.  Historians  are  agreed  that  no 
other  inventions  ever  did  so  much  for  a  people  as  have  the  inven- 
tions named  for  the  English-speaking  nations,  and  it  is  in  these 
nations  that  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics  has  reached  its 
highest  development. 

Factories  seldom  deal  with  retail  merchants  or  customers. 
When  the  goods  are  finished  they  are  put  up  in  bales  of  from 
twenty  to  fifty  yards  each,  and  the  most  expensive  qualities  are 
carefully  wrapped  in  paper  before  boxing.  The  goods  are  shipped 
from  the  factory  in  large  boxes  or  cases,  and  are  sold  directly  to 
the  wholesale  merchant,  through  whom  they  reach  the  retail  trad.' 
which  disposes  of  them  to  the  individual  customers.  Besides  the 
goods  manufactured  in  this  country,  large  quantities  of  woolens 
and  silks  are  imported,  though  American  goods  are  sometimes 
placed  upon  the  market  as  imported,  and  the  product  of  the 
American  mills  is  of  such  quality  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish  between  the   finest   fabrics  made   at   home   and   those   of 


Ia4  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

France,  Germany  or  England.  Japanese  and  Chinese  silks  can 
easily  be  distinguished  because  of  their  peculiar  fiber.  No  mills 
of  America  or  Europe  manufacture  a  fabric  of  this  type. 

The  cotton  is  received  in  the  bale.  It  is  first  cleaned, 
then  carded  suitable  for  spinning.  The  fiber  is  spun 
by  twisting  it  on  a  spindle.  Each  spinning-mule,  or  mule-jenny, 
contains  a  large  number  of  spindles,  each  of  which  twists  a  thread 
when  the  machinery  is  in  operation.  One  operative  can  tend  two 
of  these  machines,  and  is  enabled  to  spin  several  hundred  threads 
at  once.  As  the  yarn  is  spun,  it  is  wound  upon  bobbins,  from 
whence  it  is  taken  to  the  looms. 

All  weaving  is  done  by  power-looms,  which  are  so  nearly  auto- 
matic in  their  action  that  a  good  weaver  will  tend  four  or  more. 
In  large  factories  several  hundred  looms  are  generally  placed  on  the 
same  floor.  Each  loom  is  constructed  especially  for  the  kind  of 
cloth  that  it  is  to  weave,  so  that  we  find  webs  as  wide  as  the  widest 
sheeting  and  as  narrow  as  the  narrowest  ribbon,  but  the  ribbon 
looms  are  usually  so  constructed  that  the  same  loom  weaves  a  num- 
ber of  ribbons  at  once.  In  every  case  the  greatest  economy  of  con- 
struction is  observed,  so  that  the  mill  will  produce  the  largest 
quantity  of  cloth  at  the  least  possible  expense.  It  is  only  by  the 
practice  of  this  economy  that  it  has  been  possible  for  the  manufac- 
turers to  place  cotton  goods  on  the  market  at  such  prices  as  to  enable 
cloth  of  a  good  quality  to  be  purchased  for  a  few  cents  a  yard. 

Calicoes  have  received  the  commercial  name  of  prints,  because 
the  colors  are  stamped  upon  them  by  a  printing  machine  con- 
structed especially  for  the  purpose*  This  machine  quite  closely 
resembles  the  ordinary  printing  press,  only  it  has  more  cylin- 
ders, and  on  this  account  is  somewhat  larger.  Each  cylinder 
contains  etched  figures  of  the  whole,  or  a  part,  of  the  pattern,  as 
the  case  requires.  If  the  calico  is  printed  in  only  one  color,  the 
entire  pattern  is  found  on  one  cylinder.     If  the  pattern  is  to  be 


COMMERCE    AND    [NDUSTRY  1.,.", 

printed  in  several  colors,  each  cylinder  contains  only  that  portion 
of  the  pattern  that  is  produced  by  :i  single  color.  As  the  cloth 
passes  over  these  cylinders,  each  in  its  turn  stamps  its  part  of  the 

figure  on  the  calico,  and  the  cylinders  are  so  nicely  adjusted  that 
the  parts  of  each  figure  tit  into  each  other,  enabling  the  last 
cylinder  to  complete  the  design. 

For  ginghams  the  yarn  is  dyed  before  weaving,  and  the 
pattern  is  produced  in  the  loom,  which  is  so  constructed  as  to 
weave  the  desired  pattern  automatically. 

Fabrics  of  a  coarse  and  medium  grade  are  those  in  most 
demand  in  our  markets.  Sheetings,  shirtings,  ginghams  and 
calicos  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  American  output,  though  small 
quantities  of  very  delicate  fabrics  are  made. 

As  already  noted,  the  earliest  development  of  cotton  manufac- 
turing was  in  the  New  England  States,  and  Massachusetts  still 
leads  in  this  industry,  but  since  1890  Georgia  ha-  made  great 
progress  in  the  erection  of  cotton  factories.  Here  the  immediate 
presence  of  raw  material  and  the  a  bun  dance  of  cheap  labor  make 
such  a  combination  of  circumstances  as  will  enable  the  Southern 
States  to  become  sharp  competitors  of  New  England  in  the  near 
future.  The  United  States  is  the  second  country  in  the  world  in 
the  manufacture  of  cotton  fabrics,  being  exceeded  only  by  Eng- 
land. If  we  should  attempt  to  measure,  in  square  yards,  the 
amount  of  cotton  cloth  produced  in  the  country  in  one  year,  the 
number  would  be  so  large  that  we  could  not  comprehend  it.  If 
this  cloth  were  spread  out  in  one  place,  it  would  cover  an  area  of 
4915  acres,  or  .somewhat  more  than  eight  square  miles.  The 
value  of  the  cotton  product,  including  cloth  and  knit  goods,  is 
some  over  $340,000,000  per  year. 

Woolens  were  the  first   textile   fabrics   manufactured 
WOOLENS    •      .  rp,     ...         , •         ,   ■  , 

in  America.      1  lie  fiber  ol  wool   is  much   more  easily 

worked    than    that    of    the     cotton     plant.       Woolen    fabrics    are 


156  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

especially  suited  for  clothing  of  people  following  the  vocation  of 
agriculture,  and  living  in  a  cool  climate.  The  fiber  can  be  spun 
and  woven  by  the  use  of  the  most  simple  machinery,  and  is  par- 
ticularly suited  to  the  conditions  which  are  always  found  in  a 
newly  settled  country.  We  have  already  noted  how  cloth  was 
manufactured  in  the  homes  of  our  forefathers.  The  advent  of 
machinery  caused  this  industry  gradually  to  change  from  the  homes 
to  the  "manufacturing  centers,  until  now  spinning-wheels  and  hand- 
looms  are  so  rare  that  they  have  become  curiosities. 

What  is  true  of  the  machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  woolens 
by  hand  is  equally  true  of  their  manufacture  in  large  factories. 
The  machinery  required  is  less  complex  and  somewhat  less 
expensive  than  that  found  in  cotton  mills.  For  this  reason,  small 
woolen  mills  can  be  operated  at  a  profit,  and  we  find  them  very 
generally  scattered  throughout  the  New  England  and  Eastern 
States,  where  the  manufacture  of  woolens  is  located.  As  in  the 
case  of  cotton,  Massachusetts  leads  in  this  industry.  The  small 
mills  produce  goods  of  as  fine  a  quality  and  finish  as  the  great 
factories  and  furnish  opportunities  for  employment  to  a  large 
number  of  people  living  in  villages  or  rural  communities. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  woolen  fabrics,  ranging  from  the 
finest  grade  of  dress  goods  to  heavy  beavers,  felts  and  carpets. 
Fabrics  of  a  medium  grade  of  fineness  are  in  the  greatest  demand 
and  constitute  the  largest  part  of  the  output.  The  style  of  the 
cloth  depends  upon  the  method  of  spinning  and  the  finish  after  the 
fabric  is  woven.  Worsteds  are  made  from  yarn  that  is  hard 
twisted,  while  cashmeres  and  other  soft  fabrics  come  from  yarn 
that  is  loosely  twisted.  The  finest  fabrics  are  made  from  wool 
having  the  finest  fiber.  Such  fabrics  as  delaine  are  made  from 
wool  of  a  long,  fine  fiber,  while  those  woolens  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  men's  clothing  are  made  from  a  medium  grade  of  wool, 
ihe  coarse  fabrics  come  from  a  cheap  grade  of  coarse  wool. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  l.,7 

In  extent,  the  woolen  industry  docs  not  equal  thai  of  cotton, 

yet,  owing  to  the  greater  value  placed  upon  woolens,  the  value  of 

the    yearly   output    is    somewhat    more    than    that    of   the    cotton 

industry,  being   about  $395,01 >(),<><>().      As   in  the    manufacture  of 

cotton,    the    United   Slates    is    also    exceeded    by    England    in    the 

manufacture  of  woolen  goods. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  arc  the  largest  users  of 
SILK 

silk  in  the  world.      Much  of  this  is  imported,  but  a  large 

quantity  is  also  woven  in  this  country.  Several  attempts  at  grow- 
ing silk  have  been  made  in  the  United  States,  bid  they  have  never 
succeeded  because  it  requires  so  much  labor  to  raise  the  silk 
worms  that  the  United  States  can  not  afford  to  compete  with  other 
countries  in  this  industry,  and  our  silk  mills  are  obliged  to  obtain 
their  raw  product  from  France,  Italy,  Japan  and  China.  The  silk 
usually  reaches  the  American  manufacturer  in  skeins,  just  as  it  is 
wound  from  the  cocoons.  It  is  then  ready  for  the  process  known 
as  throwing,  which  is  the  silk  manufacturer's  term  .for  spinning,  or 
twisting.  After  throwing,  the  silk  is  ready  for  weaving  and  is 
passed  to  the  looms.  The  great  silk  nulls  are  nearly  all  located  in 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  Connecticut.  Probably  nine-tenths 
of  the  silk  manufactured  in  the  country  is  made  in  these  states. 
An  important  feature  of  this  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  sewing 
silk,  to  which  entire   nulls  are  devoted. 

The  value  of  silk  manufactured  annually  is  some  over  $118,- 
500,000.  This  industry  has  the  peculiar  feature  of  importing  its 
raw  material  from  a  great  distance,  for  the  purpose  of  manufac- 
turing it  at  home.  Aided  by  government  protection,  the  manufac- 
ure  of  silk,  which  started  in  a  very  small  way,  has  now  become  an 
industry  of  considerable  importance  and  one  of  great  value  to  the 
people,  because  goods  of  the  same  quality  can  be  manufactured  in 
the  United  States  and  placed  upon  the  market  at  a  lower  price 
than  they  can  be  imported  from  cither  Europe  or  China. 


l,-,8  COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 

The   manufacture  of  linen  is  carried  on  in  the  United 

LINEN 

States  to  only  a  limited  extent,  and  is  confined  almost 

entirely  to  the  coarser  fabrics,  such  as  crashes  and  towels.  All 
the  finer  grades  are  imported  from  Ireland,  Holland  and  Belgium. 
The  principal  reason  for  this  is  that  the  farmers  can  receive  much 
better  returns  for  their  labor  by  employing  it  in  other  ways  than 
preparing  flax  for  market',  and  the  manufacturers  are  unable  to  find 
suitable  localities  for  bleaching  in  the  open  air,  the  climate  of  the 
United  States  not  being  well  suited  to  this  purpose.  Large  quan- 
tities of  flax  are  raised  in  the  country  for  the  seed,  which  sells  for 
a  good  price,  often  as  high  as  a  dollar  a  bushel. 

The    manufacture    of  hemp    and    jute    is    confined 
HEMP  AND       ,  .     .  .  .       ,.    ,.  .  ,      , 

almost  entirely  to  making  binding-twines  and  other 

cordage.       The   binding-twine   industry    is    one   of 

considerable  importance  because  of  the  great  quantity  used  in  the 

grain-producing  states.     In  some  states  this  twine  is  manufactured 

in  the  penitentiaries,  but  the  greater  part  of  that  placed  upon  the 

market  is  produced  by  the  great  harvester  works  in  Chicago  and 

other  large  cities.     It  is  shipped  from  these  factories  in  car-loads, 

and   sold   to  farmers  through  dealers  in  agricultural  implements. 

Some  jute  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sacking  and  other  coarse 

fabrics  employed  by  carpet  manufacturers,  but  the  industry  is  so 

comparatively  small,  that  it  needs  only  passing  mention. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  were  woolen  and  linen  fabrics  made  in  the  United  States  so  long 
before  the  manufacture  of  cotton  was  introduced? 

Why  has  the  manufacture  of  textiles  in  England  and  the  United 
States  reached  its  present  development? 

Why  are  cotton  goods  so  much  less  expensive  than  woolens  ?  Why 
are  calicos  called  "prints"? 

Which  are  the  more  durable,  cotton  or  linen  goods? 

'Why  is  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods  so  extensive  in  the  United 
States,  when  all  the  raw  material  has  to  be  imported? 

Why  is  so  little  linen  manufactured  in  the  United  States? 


Chapter  XIV. 
LEATHER    PRODUCTS. 

The  skins  of  animals  have  been  used  for  clothing  in  all 
FURS 

ages.     When  preserved  with  the  hair  on,  they  are  known 

as  furs,  and  in  this  form  the  skins  of  some  animals,  particularly 

the  otter,  the  sable  and  the  fur-seal,  constitute  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  expensive  material  from  which  wearing  apparel  is 
made.  Most  of  the  fur-bearing  animals  live  in  a  cold  climate  and 
in  regions  sparsely  populated.  Only  a  few  are  now  found  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  taking  of  animals  for  their  furs  is  no  longer 
an  important  industry  of  the  country. 

When  the  skins  of  animals  are  dressed  without  the 
hair,  they  form  leather.  Raw  skins  from  cattle  and 
horses  are  known  to  the  trade  as  hides,  while  those  from  -mall 
animals  are  designated  as  skin-  ;  as  sheepskins,  calf-kins  and  goat- 
skins. Leather  has  become  such  a  necessity  that  none  of  the 
leather  manufacturing  countries  produce  enough  hides  from  the 
animals  killed  to  supply  themselves  with  -hoc-,  so  in  many  of  the 
grazing  regions  of  the  tropic-  and  the  south  temperate  climate 
thousands  of  animals  are  killed  just  for  their  hide-,  to  ship  to  the 
United  States  and  some  countries  of  Europe,  the  carcasses  of  these 
animals  being  left  as  useless. 

Hides  are  made  into  leather  by  tanning.  When 
^  taken  from  the  animal-  at  the  slaughter-house,  the 
hides  are  salted  to  preserve  them.  If  they  are  to  be  shipped  a 
long  distance,  they  are  also  dried.  When  they  are  received  at  the 
tannery,  they  are  soaked  to  -often  them,  ami  to  dissolve  the  salt. 
After  this  has  been  accomplished,  the  hide-  are  treated    with  lime, 

159 


160  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

which    loosens    the    hair  so  that  it  can  be  removed.     When  free 
from  the  hair,  the  skins  are  ready  for  tanning. 

Tanning  consists  of  soaking  the  raw  skins  in  a  liquid  made  by 
steeping  hemlock  or  oak  bark,  or  by  mixing  certain  chemicals 
which  have  the  same  properties  as  these  barks,  with  water.  The 
liquid  is  placed  in  a  large  vat  or  tank,  and  the  hides  are  suspended 
in  it.  At  first  they  are  placed  in  a  weak  solution,  and  as  the 
process  continues  they  are  moved  from  this  to  successive  stronger 
solutions  as  they  become  prepared  for  the  change.  The  time 
required  for  turning  raw  skins  into  leather  varies  according  to  the 
kind  of  skin  and  the  quality  of  leather  desired.  Thick,  heavy 
hides  of  cattle  and  horses,  from  which  sole  leather  is  made,  require 
a  much  longer  time  for  tanning  than  sheepskins  or  calfskins. 
The  best  quality  of  leather  is  also  made  by  a  slow  process  which 
requires  several  months,  and  in  some  cases,  even  a  year,  before  it 
is  completed. 

The  varieties  of  leather  are  due  to  the  skin  from  which  they 
are  made,  the  method  of  tanning  and  the  style  of  finish.  The 
thick  portions  of  the  hides,  which  are  along  the  sides  and  back, 
are  used  for  sole  leather  which  requires  no  further  finish  after  it  is 
tanned,  but  the  leather  used  for  the  uppers  of  shoes  and  for  various 
other  purposes  is  usually  colored.  The  coloring  is  put  on  after 
the  process  bf  tanning  is  finished.  Most  leather  used  for  boots 
and  shoes  is  colored  black,  though  various  shades  of  brown,  and 
even  red,  are  occasionally  found.  Morocco,  cordovan,  Russia 
and  other  fancy  varieties  are  usually  all  made  from  sheepskin,  and 
take  their  names  from  the  different  styles  of  finish. 

The  most  extensive  use  of  leather  is  for  the  manufacture 

TJcpc 

of  boots  and  shoes.  The  uppers  of  men's  shoes  are  made 
from  calfskin  and  goatskin,  also  other  leather  obtained  from  the 
hides  of  young  cattle.  The  uppers  of  women's  shoes  are  usually 
goatskin   or  sheepskin,   according  to  the  grade   of  shoe.     Other 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  161 

important  uses  of  leather  are  for  harness,  belting  for  machinery, 

upholstering  furniture,  the  manufacture  of  gloves  and  mittens,  and 
book-binding. 

The  United  States  is  the  leading  country  of  the  world  in  the 
manufacture  of  leather,  both  in  quantity  and  the  quality  of  its 
product.  Its  tanneries  produce  enough  to  supply  all  home 
markets,  and  also  to  enable  them  to  export  large  quantities.  This 
requires  more  hides  than  can  he  obtained  from  the  meat-packing 
industry  in  our  own  country,  and  the  balance  is  supplied  from  tin1 
countries  of  South  America,  mostly  from  the  Argentine  Republic. 
Our  annual  output,  of  leather  exceeds  $500,000,000  in  value. 

BOOTS   AND   SHOES. 

In  the  days  of  our  forefathers,  all  boots  and  shoes  were  made 
by  hand.  Each  shoemaker  performed  all  the  labor  necessary  to 
complete  the  shoes,  and  this  method  of  manufacture  continued 
until  long  after  the  Revolutionary  War.  For  years  it  was  cu-t (Hil- 
ary for  the  shoemaker  to  travel  from  house  to  house  with  his  kit 
of  tools  and  make  up  the  leather  into  such  footwear  as  the  family 
needed.  When  the  country  became  more  densely  populated,  the 
shoemaker  found  it  to  his  advantage  to  remain  in  one  location  and 
have  his  customers  come  to  him.  So  the  shoemakers  built  small 
shops,  in  each  of  which  one  or  possibly  two  men  worked. 

The  development  of  the  boot  and  shoe  industry,  from  these 
early  stages  to  its  present  condition,  is  of  great  interest  because  it 
shows  more  clearly  than  the  growth  of  any  other  industry,  what 
has  been  accomplished  through  the  division  of  labor  and  specializ- 
ing the  occupations  of  workmen.  It  is  considered  thai  the  boot 
and  shoe  industry  is  the  most  perfectly  organized  of  any  manufac- 
turing industry  in  the  country.  This  evolution  had  its  beginning 
in  the  city  of  Lynn,  Mass.,  which,  with  Brockton,  are  the  most 
important   centers  of  the  industry.     There   were  many   small   >hoe 


162  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

shops  in  Lynn  in  each  of  which  all  the  processes  necessary  to  the 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  were  carried  on.  Several  of  the 
proprietors  of  these  shops  decided  that  it  would  be  to  their  advan- 
tage to  combine  and  divide  the  different  processes  among  their 
workmen  so  that  each  man  should  give  his  attention  to  only  one  of 
the  various  processes.  Some  workmen  were  set  to  cutting  the 
patterns  from  the  stock,  others  to  sewing  these  together  and  still 
others  to  fastening  the  uppers  to  the  soles.  The  result  of  this 
venture  was  so  satisfactory  that  large  shops  soon  took  the  place  of 
the  small  ones. 

„    „»,«^     The  modern  shoe  factory  is  the  result  of  the 
MODERN    SHOE  ..     ,.         ,         .  .       J  ,     +,  ,. 

application  ot   machinery  to  the  manufacture 

FACTORY 

of  boots  and  shoes.     As  soon  as  the  sewing 

machine  was  adapted  to  this  work,  it  greatly  increased  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  shoe  shops,  and  this  machine  has  now  been  adapted 
to  all  of  the  different  uses  to  which  a  sewing  machine  can  be  put  in 
the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes.  Some  machines  sew  on  the 
buttons,  others  make  the  button-holes  and  others  sew  on  soles. 
The  invention  of  other  machines  has  kept  pace  with  the  modifica- 
tions of  the  sewing  machines,  so  that  now  almost  every  process 
required  to  produce  a  shoe  is  performed  by  machinery.  The  only 
work  done  by  hand  is  cutting  the  patterns  and  fastening  the 
uppers  to  the  lasts. 

The  rapidity  of  the  work  is  surprising  to  one  not  acquainted 
with  a  highly  specialized  industry.  Each  operative  in  the  factory 
does  but  one  thing  and,  consequently,  acquires  great  skill  and 
dexterity.  Following  the  processes,  as  the  parts  of  the  shoe  leave 
the  cutting  room,  one  needs  to  give  very  close  attention  to  the 
changes  which  these  parts  undergo  as  they  move  from  one  machine 
to  another  and  from  one  room  to  another.  So  quickly  can  the  work 
be  done  that  it  has  been  proven  that  a  pair  of  shoes  can  be  cut, 
made  and  finished,  ready  for  wear,  in  less  than  twenty  minutes. 


Commerce  and  industry  n;3 

When  finished,  the  cheaper  grades  of  shoes  are  picked  in  large 
wooden  boxes  called  cases,  while  the  belter  grades  are  wrapped  in 
(issue  paper  and  packed  in  small  boxes,  a  pair  to  a  box.  These  are 
then  placed  in  large  wooden  cases  for  shipping.  Factories  usually 
deal  with  wholesale  merchants  only,  and  the  boots  and  shoes  reach 
the  trade  by  passing  from  the  wholesale  dealer  to  the  retail  mer- 
chant, and  from  him  to  the  customers.  Shoe  factories  turn  out  all 
the  way  from  1,000  to  10,000  pairs  of  shoes  a  day,  accordingto 
their  size  and  the  style  of  shoes  made.  Factories  which  make 
women's  shoes  do  not  usually  make  shoes  for  men,  as  special 
machinery  is  necessary  for  each  kind. 

Along  with  the  advent  of  machinery  has  come  a  remarkable 
improvement  in  styles  as  well  as  in  manufacture.  The  hand-made 
boots  and  shoes  of  former  days  were  heavy  and  often  clumsy. 
Possibly  they  were  more  ^urable  than  those  now  placed  on  the 
market,  but  they  were  also  more  uncomfortable.  The  modern 
shoe  is  light  and  artistic  in  both  form  and  color.  New  styles  are 
constantly  being  invented,  and  they  call  for  new  styles  in  leather 
and  for  more  machinery  ;  a  good  illustration  that  progress  in  one 
industry  leads  to  progress  in  others. 

Massachusetts  is  the  leading  state  in  the  manufacture  of  boots 
and  shoes,  but  the  industry  is  more  generally  scattered  over  the 
country  than  the  textile  industry.  Large  factories  are  now  found 
in  nearly  all  the  important  cities  of  the  Union,  and  through  the 
Central  and  Western  States  occasional  factories  are  seen  in  small 
towns.  St.  Louis  and  ( Jincinnati  are  the  leading  centers  for  the  West 
and  their  production  is  rapidly  increasing  each  year.  As  in  the 
manufacture  of  leather,  the  United  States  leads  the  world  in  its  pro- 
duction of  boots  and  shoes,  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality,  Our 
annual  output  exceeds  220,000,000  pails,  which  is  nearly  three 
pairs  to  every  man,  woman  and  child  in  the  country,  and  the  value 
is  some  over  $260,000,000  ;    about  $5,500,000  worth  are  exported. 


164  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  are  so  few  fur-bearing  animals  found  in  this  country  ?  Name 
those  which  are  the  most  valuable. 

How  are  so  many  different  varieties  of  leather  made  from  the  same 
kind  of  skins,  as  sheepskin  ? 

What  has  driven  the  old-style  shoe-shop  out  of  existence? 

Where  are  the  most  important  centers  of  shoe  manufacturing? 

Why  do  the  United  States  manufacture  so  many  more  boots  and  shoes 
than  any  other  country? 


Chapter  XV. 

PRINTING    AND    PUBLISHING. 

Printing  has,  more  than  any  other  industry,  contributed  to 
human  advancement.  It  has  been  the  means  of  preserving  the  wis- 
dom of  the  past,  and  scattering  it  abroad  in  the  present.  At  the 
same  time  it  has  kept  mankind  informed  of  the  world's  progress 
from  day  to  day.  Printing  is  related  to  every  other  industry,  and 
without  it,  business  methods  now  in  general  use  would  have  to  be 
abandoned.  The  merchant  could  not  advertise  his  wares,  the 
farmer  his  produce,  nor  the  manufacturer  his  goods.  ^\\" it li< »i*t 
printing,  business  men  could  not  read  of  the  state  of  the  markets 
on  their  way  to  the  office  in  the  morning,  nor  learn  of  the  day's 
transactions  as  they  return  from  their  labors.  Printing  also 
increases  the  general  intelligence  of  a  people,  and  this  lends  to  a 
multiplicity  of  needs  that  continually  create  demands  for  new  prod- 
ucts. From  every  point  of  view,  we  find  printing  to  be  the  hand- 
maid of  all  industries,  and  no  account  of  our  industrial  and  com- 
mercial life  is  complete  without  a  sketch  of  the  publishing  busiuess. 

Printing  and  publishing  arc  directly  connected  with  the  manu- 
facture of  paper,  the  making  of  printing-presses,  of  type  and 
type-setting  machines,  and  the  manufacture  of  printers'  supplies. 
While  each  of  these  industries  is  in  itself  of  considerable  impor- 
tance, those  connected  with  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  printing 
machinery  are  the  most  extensive. 

Paper  was  originally  made  from  rags,  and  all  the  tabor 
PAPER 

was  performed    by    hand.      The  rags  were  reduced   to  a 

pulp   by  pounding  and  grinding  them   in   water.      Then   the   pulp 

was  dipped  from  tanks  with  a  mold  which  had  a  wire  screen  in  it > 

165 


166  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

bottom,  and  a  low  rim  around  the  edges.  This  mold  was  square 
and  just  the  size  of  the  sheet  of  paper.  As  the  workman  dipped 
up  the  pulp,  he  gently  shook  the  mold  and  distributed  it  evenly 
over  the  wire.  The  water  was  drained  out  and  a  piece  of  felt  was 
laid  over  the  pulp,  and  the  mold  was  turned  over  so  that  the  pulp 
came  out  on  the  upturned  surface  of  the  felt.  It  was  then  pressed 
and  dried  until  it  became  a  sheet  of  paper.  The  paper  made  in 
this  way  was  uneven  and  rough,  but  it  was  the  only  kind  made  in 
the  American  colonies  for  many  years,  and  however  elaborate  the 
machinery  of  the  present  paper-mill  may  be,  the  work  which  it 
does  is  in  all  respects  similar  to  that  performed  in  the  old-style 
mill  by  hand  labor. 

Paper  can  be  made  from  almost  any  fibrous  material  except 
wool.  The  very  finest  qualities  are  made  from  linen  and  cotton 
rags.  The  larger  the  proportion  of  rags,  the  better  the  quality  of 
the  paper,  but  most  of  that  now  in  general  use  contains  only  a 
small  proportion  of  rags,  the  balance  of  the  material  being  wood. 
Newspaper  is  made  entirely  of  wood,  the  best  quality  of  the  book 
paper  contains  only  a  small  proportion  of  wood,  and  the  higher 
grades  of  stationery  none  at  all.  Wrapping  paper  is  made  of  jute, 
hemp  and  old  rope,  but  may  contain  wood  pulp  and  rags. 

The  paper  industry  of  the  United  States  is  one  of  great 
importance,  and  the  amount  of  paper  used  is  almost  beyond  com- 
prehension. If  the  wood  used,  in  one  year,  for  the  manufacture 
of  pulp  Avere  placed  together  in  the  form  of  a  cube,  it  would  make 
a  pile  634  feet  high,  which  is  more  than  twice  the  height  of  the 
Masonic  Temple,  in  Chicago,  or  the  highest  office  building  in  New 
York  City.  The  length  and  breadth  of  this  pile  arc  such  as  would 
make  it  exceed  in  area  the  largest  city  block,  while  if  to  this  were 
added  the  bales  of  rags,  rope  and  other  material  used,  they  would 
make  another  cube  nearly  as  large. 

If  we  could  combine  into  one  all  the  rolls  of  paper  used  in 


COMMERCE    AND    INDl'SI'KV  167 

printing  newspaper  for  a  year,  the  roll  would  be  450  feel  long, 
and  2iif>  feel  in  diameter.  This  would  be  twice  the  size  of  the 
largestgrain  elevator  ever  built.  The  new -paper  used  in  the  form 
of  sheets,  it'  piled  together,  would  exceed  in  size  the  largest  city 
block.  Even  the  stationery  used  in  the  country  for  a  year  would 
make  a  block  427  feet  long,  2<!7  feet  wide  and  56  feet  high  ; 
while  it'  to  this  were  added  the  wrapping  paper,  we  would  increase 
the  amount  by  a  roll  475  feet  lone;  and  2M  feet  in  diameter.  The 
United  Stales  consumes  every  year  nearly  two  million  cords  of 
wood  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp. 

All  paper  is  now  made  by  machinery,  and  from  the  time 
the  raw  material  goes  to  the  mill,  until  the  finished  product 
is  placed  upon  tin1  market,  the  hand  labor  which  it  requires  i-  only 
such  as  may  be  necessary  in  adjusting  machinery,  and  in  the  occa- 
sional transfer  of  the  material  from  one  place  to  another  in  the  fac- 
tory. The  largest  paper  mills  in  the  country  are  at  Holyoke, 
Mass.  ;  other  large  mills  are  found  in  New  York  and  the  Eastern 
states.  These  mills  however  are  more  generally  given  to  the  manu- 
facture of  high  grades  of  paper.  The  mills  which  manufacture 
paper  from  wood  pulp  are  located  near  the  sources  of  raw  material, 
and  we  find  very  large  establishments  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pineries 
in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  These  millsare  given  almost  entirely 
to  the  manufacture  of  newspaper  and  book  paper. 

There  has  been  as  great  development  in  printing, 
THE  PRINTING  ..  ..    /  ,.  [      _.        '         . 

as  in  the  manutacture  ot  paper.  I  he  t.  'st  orinl- 
PRESS  . 

ing-press  in  the  United  States  was  set  up  in  Har- 
vard University  at  Cambridge,  in  1639.  This  was  a  primitive 
machine,  and  had  but  very  few  improvements  over  the  pros  upon 
which  Guttenberg,  the  inventor  of  printing,  performed  his  first 
work,  two  centuries  before.  The  growth  of  the  printing  industry 
in  the  country  is  well  illustrated  by  the  development  that  has 
followed    the   introduction    of  this    small    press    into    Cambridge. 


168  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

This  press  was  the  beginning  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  Univer- 
sity Press,  one  of  the  largest  and  best  equipped  printing  and  book- 
making  establishments  in  America,  if  not  in  the  world.  The  first 
cylinder  printing-press  was  used  in  London  in  1814,  for  printing 
the  London  Times,  but  the  greatest  development  of  this  useful 
machine  was  made  try  Mr.  Richard  Hoe  of  New  York  City,  who  in 
1840  invented  the  press  which  was  the  original  pattern  of  those 
now  in  use  for  printing  the  large  daily  papers. 

Mr.  Hoe's  press  put  the  type  on  the  cylinder,  and  was  so 
arranged  that  it  printed  several  sheets  at  once.  Stereotyped  plates 
are  now  used  on  these  presses,  in  place  of  the  type,  and  are  so 
made  that  each  plate  covers  half  a  cylinder.  By  means  of  these 
plates  the  presses  can  be  operated  with  great  speed,  and  print  both 
sides  of  the  paper  at  once.  Patterns  of  this  press  now  in  use  have 
been  brought  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection  that  a  single  machine 
will  print,  out  and  fold  150,000  copies  of  a  sixteen-page  paper  an 
hour.  The  paper  is  run  from  the  roll,  and  passes  through  the 
press  at  the  rate  of  about  thirty-five  miles  an  hour. 

There  has  been  as  great  a  development  in  type- 

TYPE   SETTING.         ...  *  .        K   ..  jZ\~ 

setting  or  composition,  as  in  printing.      Until 

a  few  years  ago  all  type  was  set  by  hand,  but  now  in  all  large 
establishments  most  of  it  is  set  by  machinery.  Type-setting 
machines  enable  one  operator  to  do  what  it  would  require  five  or 
six  compositors  to  accomplish  in  the  same  time.  By  their  use  the 
cost  of  printing  has  been  greatly  reduced,  and  the  present  daily 
paper  has  been  made  possible.  The  rapidity  with  which  this  work 
can  be  done  enables  the  publishers  of  large  dailies  to  delay  com- 
position until  a  much  later  hour  than  was  possible  when  all  type  had 
to  be  set  by  hand.  As  a  result  of  this  the  papers  contain  later 
information  than  would  formerly  be  possible.  The  latest  market 
reports  and  other  important  commercial  information  is  now  found 
in  every  daily  paper  of  value. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  ]i;y 

While  all  of  the  large  printing  and  publishing  estab- 

T  fiPATTON  ' 

lishnienta  are  found  in  our  largesl  cities,  every 
small  city  and  town  of  importance  has  one  or  more  printing  offices. 
In  fact,  there  is  scarcely  a  spot  in  the  entire  country  that  does  nol 
have  its  local  press.  Perhaps  printing  is  more  generally  distributed 
over  the  country  than  any  other  industry  except  agriculture. 

The  printing  and  publishing  interests  of  our  country  involve  a 
great  amount  of  capital,  and  give  employment  to  thousands  of  men 
and  women.  The  value  of  our  annual  output  of  paper  is  about 
$127,333,000.  To  gel  the  entire  value  of  this  industry  we  would 
have  to  add  to  this  amount  the  cost  of  the  printing-presses,  type- 
setting machines  and  printers'  supplies  used  each  year.  When  all 
these  things  are  taken  into  consideration,  we  find  that  printing  and 
publishing  constitute  one  of  the  great  industries  of  the  country. 
While  many  of  the  commercial  methods  connected  with  this  indus- 
try are  somewhat  different  from  those  of  the  other  manufactures 
we  have  mentioned,  yet  the  intimate  relation  which  the  printing- 
press  hears  to  all  phases  of  American  life  makes  it  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  our  country's  prosperity. 

QUESTIONS. 

Show  how  printing  lias  contributed  so  much  to  the  progress  of  civili- 
zation. 

Why  are  books  and  newspapers  so  much  cheaper  now  than  they  were 
fifty  years  ago? 

How  are  the  great  city  dailies  printed? 

How  do  yon  account  for  the  location  of  a  printing-press  in  ulmost 
every  small   town  in  the   country? 

4 


Chapter  XVT. 

OTHEB    INDUSTRIES. 

To  describe  all  the  manfactures  of  our  country  would  require 
many  volumes  the  size  of  this.  While  those  already  mentioned 
are  among  the  largest  and  most  important,  there  are  scores  of 
others  of  such  magnitude  that  they  could  not  be  removed  from  our 
industrial  or  commercial  life  without  causing  a  business  stagnation. 
Some  of  these  deal  with  large  articles  and  require  extensive  estab- 
lishments and  much  capital,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  agricultural 
implements  and  electrical  appliances ;  while  others  deal  with 
smaller  articles  and  are  conducted  on  a  much  smaller  scale. 

The  most  important  agricultural   implements 
AGRICULTURAL  „     l  .    "  ,  ,     /, 

are  those  tor  preparing  the  sou  tor  the  ^'ra, 

IMPLEMENTS  ,  i  i  i  +i         <■        .     . 

such  as  plows  and  harrows  ;  those  lor  plant- 
ing, like  planters  and  seeders;  those  for  tilling  the  soil,  such  as 
the  various  patterns  of  hoes  and  cultivators;  those  used  for  har- 
vesting, such  as  the  mowing-machine,  hayrake  and  tedder,  the 
harvester  and  binder  and  the  corn-cutter;  and  those  used  for 
preparing  the  crops  for  market,  such  as  the  threshing-machine,  the 
corn-sheller  or  corn-thresher  and  the  cotton-gin.  To  these  must 
be  added  the  innumerable  hand  tools,  each  of  which  is  manufac- 
tured in  large  numbers. 

The  income  from  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements 
exceeds  $100,000,000  yearly.  Illinois  is  the  leading  state  and 
Chicago  the  leading  city  in  the  industry.  Here  art'  located  the 
works,  of  the  International  Harvester  Company,  which  supplies 
most  of  the  country   with   harvesters  and    mowers.      On    account 

of  its  lightness,  durability  and  convenience,  American  agricultural 

171 


172  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

machinery  is  in  demand  in  all  of  the  agricultural  countries  of 
Europe  and  also  in  South  America  and  Australia. 

It  is  estimated  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  that  the  in- 
ventions and  improvements  of  agricultural  machinery  since  1860 
have  caused  the  following  reduction  in  the  cost  of  producing  crops  : 
corn,  from  34f  cents  to  10!  cents  per  bushel;  wheat,  from  17f 
cents  to  3£  cents  per  bushel  ;  hay,  from  $3.06  to  $1.29  per  ton. 
At  the  present  time  the  amount  of  human  labor,  on  an  average, 
required  to  produce  a  bushel  of  corn  is  41  minutes,  and  for  a 
bushel  of  wheat,  10  minutes. 

This  great  saving  in  the  cost  of  production  has  made  it  pos- 
sible to  sell  the  most  important  food  products  at  such  reduced 
prices  as  to  bring  them  within  the  reach  of  all  of  our  people. 
Agricultural  implements  touch  the  life  of  all  classes  and,  directly 
or  indirectly,  affect  the  prosperity  of  all  industries  on  account  of 
the  relation  of  these  industries  to  agriculture. 

„,„„„.„,..,       Electricity  has  become  a  common  agent  in  our 
ELECTRICAL      .,,./,  .,-,.-        7    t    ,  rf.       + 

industrial   and  commercial    lite.      In   addition  to 

APPLIANCES      .,       ,,    .  .     ,,    , ,   ,  ,  i+ii 

its   oldest   uses  in  the   telegraph   and   telephone 

and  electric  light,  it  is  now  employed  to  propel  cars  and  machin- 
ery, to  separate  metals  from  their  ores  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
numerous  chemical  products  extensively  used  in  the  arts. 

The  demand  for  electrical  appliances  has  become  so  general 
that  their  manufacture  has  created  an  extensive  and  important 
business.  Factories  for  the  manufacture  of  electrical  machinery 
are  found  in  all  large  cities.  New  York  leads  in  the  industry  and 
Chicago  is  second,  but  smaller  cities  contain  factories  equally  effi- 
cient, though  operated  on  a  less  extensive  scale. 

„„.,.  While    the    United    States    is  the    land    of    great 

SMAL' 

achievements,  and  the  twentieth  century  is  the  day 

ARTICLES         -.-..'..  .        ,  JA  ,.J 

ot    gigantic  enterprises,   we  must  not  despise  the 

small  things  which  enter  into  our  daily  life,     The  country  contains 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  17;; 

numerous  industries,  which,  when  compared  in  value  with  those 
already  described,  arc  small,  yet,  on  account  of  their  relation  t<> 
other  industries  and  to  commerce,  are  of  such  importance  that, 
should  any  one  of  them  be  destroyed,  its  loss  would  cause  serious 
inconvenience,  both  in  the  United  States  and  several  of  the  coun- 
tries with  which  we  are  carrying  on  an  extensive  commerce. 

Gloves  and  mittens  are  necessary  for  corn- 
Gloves  and  Mittens     e  i  i?  . +1 

fort  and  ornament.     Every  year  there  are 

manufactured    in    the    country    nearly    3,000,000   dozen    pairs    of 

leather  gloves  and  mittens,  to  say   nothing  of  those   made  of  yarn 

and  other  material.     The  largest   number  is  made   in   the  state  of 

New   York,  which  has  more   factories  than  all  of  the   other  states 

combined.     Illinois,  Wisconsin  and  California  are  also  prominent 

in  the  manufacture  of  these  articles.      Most  of  the  leather  used  is 

kid,  sheepskin  and  dogskin. 

The   adaptation   of  the   gum   of  the 
Rubber  Boots  and  Shoes     mbber  tm,  fco  practica]  ([m.  ig  due  1u 

the  inventive  genius  of  an  American,  Mr.  Charles  Goodyear. 
After  a  number  of  years  of  trial  it  is  said  that  Mr.  Goodyear  made 
his  discovery  by  accident.  The  story  is,  that,  after  spending  sev- 
eral years  of  his  time  and  all  of  his  property  in  trying  to  discover 
some  means  of  hardening  rubber  so  that  it  would  not  lie  sticky,  be 
was  one  day  engaged  in  an  animated  conversation  with  some 
friends  who  were  in  his  shop.  Upon  a  stove  near  which  he  stood 
was  a  kettle  containing  some  rubber  in  a  melted  state,  and  with 
which  he  had  mixed  some  sulphur.  In  the  course  of  his  conver- 
sation he  upset  the  kettle  and  spilled  the  contents  upon  the  hot 
stove.  When  the  rubber  and  sulphur  were  raised  to  the  required 
temperature,  they  united  and  formed  the  long  sought  compound. 
"Mr.  Goodyear  obtained  a  patent  upon  his  process  in  1844,  and  the 
successful  manufacture  of  rubber  goods  began  that  year, 

Rubber  boots  and  shoes  have  become  a  household  necessity,  and 


174  COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 

their  use  saves  thousands  of  people  from  exposure  and  discomfort. 

The  entire  value  of  the  output  is  a  little  over  $40,000,000  a  year. 

Most  of  the  factories  are  located  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and 

Rhode  Island.     Chicago  has  a  number,  and  there  are  a  few  others 

in  different  cities.     The  raw  material,  or  pure  rubber,  is  imported 

from  the  Amazon  region. 

There  are  about  240  button  factories  in  the  countiy, 

1       and  the  yearly   value  of  their  combined  product   is 

some  over  $7,500,000,  which  is  quite  a  fortune  to  be  expended  on 

the  production  of  so   small  an   article.     Buttons  are   made  from 

more  than  a   dozen   different    materials.     The  most  important  of 

these  are  agate,  bone,  glass,  horn,  vegetable  ivory,  pearl  or  shell, 

and  metal,  including  nickel,  steel  and  brass. 

What  are  known  as  fresh  water  pearl  buttons  are  made  from 

the  shell  of  a  clam  which  is  found  extensively  in  the  Mississippi 

River  and   some  of  its  tributaries.     In   1890,  this  industry  was 

unknown  in  the  United  States,  but  now  it  gives  employment  to 

several  thousand  people,  and  it  has  given  value  to  a  shell  that 

before  was  considered  worthless.     The  largest  quantity  of  fresh 

water   pearl    buttons    is    made    in    the  state   of  Iowa,   where   the 

industry  started. 

Until  the  invention  of  the  sewing  machine 
Needles  and  Pins     but  few  needles  were  made  in  this  countrv, 

but  the  necessity  for  machine  needles  led  to  their  manufacture  by 
sewing  machine  companies,  and  in  time  this  manufacture  was 
extended  to  include  common  needles.  England  leads  the  world  in 
the  manufacture  of  needles,  and  those  of  the  best  quality  are  still 
imported  from  that  country. 

Simple  as  this  little  implement  is,  the  process  of  its  manufac- 
ture is  quite  complicated.  Even  with  all  of  the  machinery  now  in 
use  in  their  manufacture,  every  needle  passes  through  the  hands  of 
seventy  workmen  before  it  is  completed. 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  175 

The  pin  also  is  an  insignificant  article,  but  one  upon  whose 
manufacture  a  great  deal  of  forethought  has  been  expended.  Pins 
are  made  by  machinery  from  coils  of  brass  wire.  The  work  is 
done  so  rapidly  thai  a  continuous  stream  of  pins  falls  from  the 
machine.  Over  30, 000, <><><)  arc  made  in  the  United  States  in 
every  working  day  of  the  year.  Before  this  work  was  done  by 
machinery,  each  pin  passed,  in  the  course  of  its  manufacture, 
through  the  hands  of  fourteen  workmen.  Centuries  ago,  pins 
were  so  scarce  and  so  expensive  that  they  were  used  only  by  tlio 
most  wealthy  people. 

Although    the    use    of    the    typewriter    has 

Pencils  and  Pens     ,  ,        ,       •  in-  e  i 

become  almost  universal,. millions  ot  pencils 

and  pens  are  used  in  the  country  every  year.  The  great  factories 
in  which  these  are  produced  are  in  New  York,  New  Jersey  and 
Pennsylvania.  The  graphite,  from  which  the  lead  of  the  pencil  is 
made,  is  taken  from  mines  near  Ticonderoga,  X.  Y.,  and  the  wood 
for  the  cases  comes  from  the  swamps  of  Florida.  The  United 
States  manufactures  about  one  half  a  million  gross  a  year. 

Steel  pens  are  made  from  cast  steed  of  the  best  quality.  Most 
of  it  is  imported  from  England  and  Sweden.  Some  over  a  million 
gross  are  manufactured  yearly,  and  to  this  must  be  added 
the  gold  pens  and  the  various  kinds  of  fountain  pens.  While 
England  still  leads  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  pens,  the 
American  factories  now  nearly  supply  the  needs  of  our  own 
country. 

Most  of  the  clucks  of  the  country  are  made  in 
Connecticut,  and  watches  in  Massachusetts,  Illi- 
nois and  New  Jersey.  Accuracy  and  cheapness  characterize  the 
American  watch.  This  is  because  the  works  are  made  entirely  by 
machinery  and  are  always  exact.  The  largest  watch  factory  in  the 
world  is  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts,  aud  the  second  in  Elgin, 
Illinois.     The  Waltham  factory  alone  manufactures  more  watches 


17(5  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

in  a  year  than  any  other  foreign  country  except  Switzerland,  its 
output  being  600,000. 

Time-pieces  are  now  so  common  that  we  scarcely  think  of 
their  value  until  deprived  of  them,  but  this  is  because  their  manu- 
facture has  been  made  so  cheap  that  almost  any  one  who  desires 
may  possess  a  clock  or  a  watch.  Before  the  manufacture  of 
watches  by  machinery,  their  expense  was  so  great  that  but  few 
people  could  afford  to  own  them. 

Some   of  our  most    common    articles  in 
Waste  By-products       daily  use  are  mu(le  from  prodllcts  that 

were  formerly  thrown  away  as  worthless.  Soap  is  made  from  the 
waste  tissue  and  fat  from  the  great  meat  packing  houses.  Glue 
comes  from  the  heads  and  feet  of  slaughtered  animals  and  some  of 
the  most  valuable  fertilizers  are  made  from  the  blood  and  offal. 

Formerly,  the  slag  formed  in  smelting  iron  was  removed  from 
the  smelting  works  at  considerable  expense  and  destroyed  ;  but 
now  it  is  extensively  used  in  making  a  valuable  cement  and  in  the 
production  of  paving  stones.  This  industry  is  much  more  exten- 
sive in  Europe  than  in  the  United  States.  The  cities  of  Brussels, 
Metz  and  Paris  now  contain  a  great  deal  of  pavement  made  from 
slag.  In  England  it  is  manufactured  into  bricks  of  a  superior 
quality. 

Sawdust  has  now  become  an  article  of  value,  when  only  a  few 
years  ago  it  was  burned  in  the  rubbish  heap,  or  allowed  to  float 
down  stream.  By  a  process,  discovered  by  a  French  cabinet- 
maker, the  sawdust  is  made  into  an  artificial  wood  by  the  use  of 
cement,  great  pressure  and  intense  heat.  The  value  of  this  wood 
is  far  greater  than  that  of  the  natural  timber.  It  is  hard,  strong 
and  capable  of  taking  a  high  polish,  so  that  the  articles  made  from 
it  are  often  more  beautiful  than  those  made  from  rosewood  or 
mahogany. 

The  paper  industry  originally  depended  upon  rags  and  waste 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  177 

rope  for  its  raw  material,  and  it  .still  consumes  all  of  these  that  can 
be  procured,  but  the  source-  will  not  supply  the  present  demand  for 
paper,  so  that  wood  pulp  and  other  material  have  to  be  added. 
But  the  use  of  these  substances  should  not  blind  us  to  the  fact  that 
large  quantities  of  rags  and  waste  rope  are  used  by  the  paper  mills 
of  the  country. 

The  iron  from  old  tin  cans  is  fused  into  steel  of  good  quality. 
The  food  waste  and  garbage  of  great  cities,  and  even  the  grease 
obtained  in  cleaning  wool,  are  all  worked  into  something  of  use 
and  value,  and  the  fact  that  science  and  invention  have  made  it 
possible  to  turn  so  many  of  these  substances  to  practical  use  is 
one  of  the  greatest  importance  in  our  industrial  life.  In  all  occu- 
pations economy  and  frugality  are  necessary  to  success,  and 
nowhere  do  wre  find  these  virtues  practised  to  a  greater  degree 
than  in  our  great  industrial  enterprises,  and  this  practice  is  one  of 
the  principal  reasons  for  our  success  as  a  manufacturing  nation. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  has  been  the  influence  of  agricultural  machinery  upon  the  de- 
velopment <>f  tlic  central  and  western  portions  of  the  country? 

What  agricultural  machines  have  been  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
this  development? 

Where  are  the  largest  rubber-shoe  factories  located?  Where  do  they 
obtain  their  raw  material? 

Why  aii'  pins  and  needles  so  much  cheaper  than  they  were  in  the  days 
of  our  forefathers? 

Why  is  a  machine-made  watch  usually  a  more  correct  time-keeper  than 
one  made  by  hand? 

Whal  common  household  articles  are  made  from  by-products? 


Chaptki:   XVII. 

TRADE    ROUTES. 

When  the  country  was  new,  :ill  merchandise  trans- 
ported overland  was  carried  on  the  backs  of  men  or 
animals,  and  by  boat  whenever  possible.  The  old  overland  trade 
route,  in  many  instances,  followed  the  most  important  Indian 
trails.  These  were  located  with  reference  to  the  ease  and  safety 
with  which  they  could  he  traversed,  or  to  their  convenience  in 
leading  from  one  place  to  another. 

The  Indian  trails  became  bridle  paths,  which  joined  neighbor- 
ing settlements,  and,  as  the  country  developed,  these  routes 
broadened  into  wagon  roads.  Previous  to  the  Revolution,  roads, 
over  which  stage  wagons  made  regular  trips,  connected  New  York 
and  Philadelphia;  others  connected  Boston  with  some  of  the  more 
important  towns  in  Connecticut,  and  these  towns  with  New  York. 
However,  but  little  attention  was  given  to  road  making  until  after 
the  war  for  independence. 

Road  ma  king  in  the  United  States  has  not  kept  pace  with  the 
commercial  development  of  the  country  on  account  of  the  vast 
extent  of  our  territory  and  the  rapid  settlement  of  new  states.  In 
the  older  states  the  principal  roads  are  fairly  good,  but  in  those 
west  of  New  York  and  south  of  the  Ohio  River  the  roads  are 
entirely  inadequate  to  the  demands  made  upon  them.  In  all  of 
these  states  there  are  but  a  few  miles  of  stone  road,  and  in  certain 
seasims  the  dirt  roads  are  well  nigh  impassable  on  account  of  mud. 
'1  he  growth  of  the  country  and  the  rapid  development  of  our  com- 
mercial interests  make  good  roads  a  necessity  to  all  agricultural 
communities,  and  both  the  national  and  state  governments  are  now 

L79 


COMMERCE    AND    [NDUSTRY  181 

making  efforts  to  improve  tne  public  highways.     In  the  present 

condition  of  the  roads  it  often  costs  the  tanner  more  to  haul  his 
produce  to  the  railway  than  it  does  to  ship  it  from  the  nearest 
station  in  the  interior  to  the  coast. 

Railroads  are  the  greatest  overland  trade  routes 

RAILROADS         ,.,  ,  .»  -,,    ,. 

ot  the  country.     Beginning  with  the  construction 

of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  the  Delaware  iX:  Hudson  Canal  Roads 
in  1830  and  1832,  they  have  gradually  extended  their  lines  until 
now  railways  are  found  in  nearly  every  habitable  portion  of  the 
land.  The  first  railway  lines  followed  the  river  valleys,  and  for 
many  years  it  was  not  thought  possible  to  construct  a  railroad 
through  mountainous,  or  even  hilly  regions,  but  the  science  of 
engineering  has  now  overcome  all  difficulties  ;  impassable  moun- 
tains are  tunnelled,  rivers  and  lakes  are  bridged,  and  a  railroad 
can  be  constructed  wherever  it  is  desired,  provided  the  company 
is  willing  to  pay  the  cost. 

We  should  notice  here  that  tunnelling  a  mountain  or  bridsrine 
a  stream  has  the  same  effect  as  removing  these  obstructions,  as  far 
as  transportation  is  concerned.  The  most  important  tunnel  of  this 
sort  is  the  Iloosac  Tunnel  in  Massachusetts,  which  is  some  over 
four  miles  in  length.  Numerous  others  of  greater  or  less  length 
are  found  in  the  Appalachian  and  Rocky  Mountains.  The  great 
rivers  of  the  United  States  ami  Canada  are  now  bridged  in  numer- 
ous places.  Some  of  the  most  noted  of  these  bridges  are  the 
Lads  Bridge,  crossing  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis;  the  railway 
bridges  crossing  the  Ohio  at  Cairo,  III.,  and  Louisville,  Ky.  ;  the 
steel-arch  bridge  across  the  Niagara  River  at  Niagara  Falls  and 
the  great  cantilever  bridge  at  the  same  place.  Numerous  other 
important  bridges  also  exist,  bul  to  enumerate  them  all  would 
make  a  list  too  long  for  a  work  of  this  size. 

In  numerous  places,  where,  on  account  of  the  breadth  of  the 
body  of  water  or  the  danger  of  obstructing  navigation,  bridges  are 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


188 


impracticable,  ferry  boats  are  employed  to  transport  trains  across. 

These  ferries  are  large  steamboats  constructed  especially  for  this 
purpose,  and  most  of  them  are  capable  of  carrying  from  ten  to 
twenty-four  cars  at  once.      Some  of  the  most   important    railway 


K  I    CUTTING    RAILWAY    FERRY 
This  ferry  is  302  feet  long  and  can  carry  18  freight  cars  at  a  load.     It  piles  between  St.  Ignace  an. I 
Mackinaw  City,  Mich.    A  special  device   for   cutting  the  ice  enables   it    to   keep  the  channel  open  tin- 
entire  winter. 

ferries  are  those  crossing  the  East  River  at  New  York,  the  Detroit 
River  at  Detroit,  and  Port  Huron;  those  crossing  the  Ohio  River 
at  Cairo,  111.;  those  crossing  t he  Straits  of  Mackinaw  between 
St.  Ignace  and  Mackinaw  City,  Mich.  ;  and  those  crossing  the  bay 
at  San  Francisco.      The  boats  crossing  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw  arc 


184  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

of  a  peculiar  style  and  are  so  constructed  that  they  can  cut  their 
way  through  the  ice  during  the  winter.  One  of  these  boats  is  the 
largest  railway  ferry  in  the  world.  There  are  also  a  number  of 
ferries  plying  between  Milwaukee  and  ports  on  the  eastern  shore. 

The  most  important  lines  of  railway  extend  east  and  west,  or 
nearly  so.  There  are,  however,  a  few  exceptions  to  this  general 
rule.  The  lines  in  the  northern  New  England  States,  and  many 
of  those  in  the  Southern  States,  extend  north  and  south,  while  the 
Illinois  Central  extends  from  Chicago  to  New  Orleans  and  forms  an 
important  north  and  south  trunk  line.  This  railway  has  numerous 
branches  extending  from  Chicago  to  St.  Paul,  from  Chicago  to 
St.  Louis,  and  numerous  shorter  lines  which  connect  the  main  line 
with  other  important  towns  on  the  Mississippi. 

The    railways    of  the    United    States    are    naturally  grouped 

according  to  the  extent  of  their  lines  and  their  connections,  as 

follows  : 

The  railways  of  the    New  England 
The  New  England  Group     gtate8  be]ong  almost  enth.ely  to  the 

Boston  &  Maine,  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  the 
Maine  Central  and  the  Grand  Trunk  Systems.  The  main  lines 
and  branches  of  these  combined  systems  touch  almost  every  town 
of  importance  in  the  states  through  which  they  pass.  Their  princi- 
pal connections  with  western  lines  are  made  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,New 
York  City  and  Montreal.  The  important  railway  centers  in  the 
New  England  States  are  Boston,  Portland,  Springfield,  Mass.,  and 
New  London  and  Hartford,  Conn. 

The  railroads  in  this  group  are  arranged  in 
ine  uenirai  0  p  ^.wo  divisions  .  those  running  from  eastern 
points  to  Chicago,  and  those  running  from  Chicago  westward.  The 
important  lines  of  the  first  division  are  the  New  York  Central  and 
Hudson  River  Railroad  running  from  New  York  to  Buffalo  ;  and  its 
extensions,  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  and  the  Michigan 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  185 

Central,  both  of  which  reach  from  Buffalo  to  Chicago  ;  the  Pennsyl- 
vania System,  also  extending  from  New  York  to  Chicago,  by  way  of 
Philadelphia,  and  having  many  important  branch  lines  leading  to 
Columbus,  Cincinnati,  Fort  Wayne  and  numerous  other  importanl 
towns  in  Ohio  and  Indiana;  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  extending  from 
New  York  to  Baltimore  and  Washington,  thence  westward  by  the 
Potomac  and  Ohio  Rivers  as  far  as  St.  Louis,  with  ;i  northern  line 
by  way  of  Harrisburg  to  Chicago.  Other  important  lines  in  this 
group  are  the  Wabash  «.<.  Pacific,  the  Lake  Erie  &  Western,  the 
Chicago,  Cleveland,  Cincinnati  &  St.  Louis,  usually  known  as  the 
Big   Four. 

The  important  lines  of  the  second  division  are,  the  Chicago  & 
Northwestern,  with  lines  extending  from  Chicago  to  St.  Paul  and 
Minneapolis,  from  Chicago  to  Duluth,  Chicago  to  Omaha,  and 
branch  lines  extending  into  Iowa  and  South  Dakota  ;  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul,  extending  from  Chicago  to  St.  Paul  by  way 
of  Milwaukee,  and  with  important  branches  running  through 
Northern  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Southern  Minnesota  ;  also  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  c<:  Quincy,  usually  known  as  the  Burlington  System. 
This  system  has  important  lines  extending  from  Chicago  to  St. 
Paul,  and  St.  Paul  to  St.  Louis,  with  a  line  to  Denver  by  way 
of  Kansas  City.  It  will  be  noticed  the  roads  leading  out  of 
Chicago  in  many  instances  extend  beyond  the  Mississippi.  They 
form  the  connection  between  the  roads  of  the  first  division  in  this 
group  and  the  great  trunk  lines  which  extend  from  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  River  points  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  most  important  rail  way  centers  in  the  central  group  are 
New  York,  Albany,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Pittsburg,  Buffalo, 
Cincinnati,  Fort  Wayne,  South   Bend,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis. 

This  group  contains  those  systems  which 

The  Western  Group     ,•        \,  .  4  .-    '  ,  .  ,• 

^     form  the  ureat   transcontinental  lines,  so 

called  because  they  make  connections  which  reach  aci'OSS  the  eoun- 


186  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

try,  though  no  one  road  or  single  system  of  roads  in  the  United 
States  has  a  continuous  line  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 
These  lines  are,  taking  them  in  their  order  from  north  to  south, 
the  Great  Northern  and  Northern  Pacific,  which  extend  from  St. 
Paul  and  Duluth  through  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  Montana  and 
Idaho,  to  Washington  and  Oregon  points;  the  Union  Pacific,  ex- 
tending from  Omaha  through  Nebraska,  Wyoming,  Utah  and 
Nevada,  to  California  points;  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe, 
extending  from  Chicago  to  San  Francisco  by  way  of  Colorado,  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona;  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific, 
which  also  is  a  route  extending  westward  from  Chicago  through 
Colorado  and  Arizona  to  California.  Of  these,  the  Union  Pacific, 
now  generally  known  as  the  Southern  Pacific,  was  the  first,  line 
constructed,  and  its  completion  in  1869  marked  the  beginning  of  a 
new  industrial  era  in  the  country.  All  of  these  great  lines  have 
received  government  aid  in  their  construction,  in  most  cases  by 
large  grants  of  land  which  the  roads  have  sold  to  settlers,  but 
in  some  cases,  particulary  that  of  the  Union  Pacific,  by  the  govern- 
ments guaranteeing  the  bonds  issued  for  the  construction  of  the 
road. 

The  great  railway  centers  connecting  with  this  group  of  roads 
are  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis,  Omaha,  Kansas 
City,  Denver,  San  Francisco,  Portland  and  Seattle.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  Chicago  is  in  the  territory  of  the  Central  Group,  but 
it  is  practically  the  center  from  which  all  these  great  lines  radiate 
and  properly  belongs  with  them  on  account  of  this  relation. 

The  roads  of  the  southern  group  are 
The  Southern  Group      lesg  extensive  than  those  of  the  otherS5 

but  most  of  them  are  now  combined  into  systems.  Among  these 
worthy  of  mention  are  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  the  Queen  &  Cres- 
cent, the  Atlantic  Coast  system,  the  Louisville  &  Southern,  the 
Georgia  Central  and  the  Illinois  Central.     The  most  important  of 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  187 

these  lines  have  direct  connections  with  the  lines  of  the  Central 
Group  at  Cincinnati,  Cairo  and  St.  Louis.  The  important  rail- 
way centers  are  Louisville,  Nashville,  Atlanta,  New  Orleans  and 
Jacksonville. 

The  United  States  has  some  over  220,000  miles  of  railways, 
which  is  nearly  one-half  the  mileage  of  the  world.  Most  of  the 
lines  are  combined  into  great  systems,  each  of  which  is  under  a 
single  management.  The  largest  of  these  is  the  Pennsylvania, 
which  includes  some  over  10,000  miles  of  track.  Others  of  impor- 
tance are  the  New  York  Central,  the  Chicago  &  Northwestern,  the 
Santa  Fe,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul,  the  Burlington  and 
each  of  the  great  Pacific  lines.  The  combined  roads  have  over 
38,000  locomotives,  35,000  passenger  cars,  and  about  1,400,000 
freight  cars.  They  carry  yearly  over  600,000,000  passengers,  and 
more  than  a  billion  tons  of  freight,  and  employ  over  a  million  men. 
The  capacity  of  the  freight  cars  ranges  from  thirty  to  forty  ton-. 
The  speed  of  the  passenger  trains  is  from  forty  to  fifty  miles,  with 
a  speed  of  from  sixty  to  sixty-live  miles  per  hour  for  some  of  the 
fastest  express  trains.  Through  freight  trains  average  about  thirty 
miles  an  hour,  except  in  mountainous  regions.  The  average  tariff 
per  mile  for  passengers  is  a  little  over  two  cents,  and  the  freight 
rates  are  about  seventy  cents  per  ton  for  each  hundred  miles. 

tni  ANn  ^ie  ^"'an<l  waterways  of  the  United  States  have 

an  extent  of  18,000  miles,  about  14,000  miles  of 

WATERWAYS        ,  .  ,  .     .  ,      .  .  .  ,  .    . 

which  are  in  navigable  rivers  and  lakes,  and  about 

4,000  miles  in  canals. 

The   most    important   navigable   rivers   belong  to   the 
Rivers  .... 

Mississippi  system,  and  are  the  Mississippi,  the  Ohio, 

the  Missouri,  the  Arkansas  and  the  Red,  with  a  few  smaller  tribu- 
taries. 

The  Mississippi  is  navigable  as  far  as  St.  Paul,  and  between 
St.    Louis  and  the   (iulf  has   Numerous  lines  of  steamers  making 


S  41^^ 


COMMER(  i     \\i)    INDUSTRY  189 

regular  trips  throughout  the  year.  The  Ohio  is  navigable  as  far  as 
Pittsburg,  and  furnishes  n  very  important  outlet  for  the  coal,  iron 
iiid  other  heavy  products  of  thai  part,  of  the  country.  The 
Missouri  is  navigable  as  far  as  Fori  Benton  during  high  water, 
and  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yellowstone  at  other  times,  but  the  con- 
struction of  the  western  trunk  lines  of  railway  has  made  the  navi- 
gation of  this  Stream  of  less  importance  than  formerly.  Mosl  of  the 
rivers  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  are  navigable  to  the  tall  line,  mid 
steamers  ascend  the  Hudson  as  tar  as  Albany.  Navigable  rivers 
afford  convenient  transportation  at  lower  rates  than  those  charged 
by  the  railways  and  those  of  the  Mississippi  system  are  of  special 
value  because  of  their  length  and  the  means  thev  afford  of  reaching 
points  tar  removed  from  the  sea  coast. 

The  most  important  lake  routes  are  those  conneeted  with 

To  If  pc 

the  Great  Lakes.  They  include  routes  from  Duluth  to 
Lake  Huron  points,  such  as  Mackinac  Island,  Port  Huron  and 
Detroit,  and  to  Cleveland  and  Buffalo  on  Lake  Erie;  also  routes 
from  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  several  Michigan  points,  through  the 
Straits  of  Mackinaw  to  the  ports  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie.  The 
railroads  of  this  section  have  some  advantage  over  the  lake  routes, 
because  the  latter  are  open  to  navigation  only  225  days  in  the 
year,  while  the  railroads  are  open  the  year  round;  hut  the  cheap 
transportation  offered  by  the  lines  of  steamers  plying  over  these 
waters  gives  them  an  abundance  of  traffic  during  the  open  season. 
During  the  season,  lake  steamers,  drawing  20  feel  of  water,  and  as 
large  as  many  ocean  steamers,  make  regular  trips  between  Duluth 
and  Chicago.  The  best  of  these  boats  can  make  about  14  round 
trips  from  the  first  of  May  to  the  first  of  December.  On  their 
downward  trips,  boats,  from  Duluth  and  Lake  Superior  point-, 
carry  cargoes  of  grain,  copper,  flour  and  iron-ore  J  and  from 
Chicago  and  Lake  Michigan  point-,  grain  and  merchandise;  while 
on   their   return    trips    all    boats    are    usually    loaded    with    coal    or 


i;      s: 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


191 


merchandise.  Some  lines  carry  both  freight  and  passengers  and 
two  linos  are  devoted  entirely  to  passenger  traffic.  The  trip  is 
one  of  the  most  delightful  in  the  world. 


THE   '.' NORTHWEST,"  ONE    OF    THE    LARGEST  AND    FINEST  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  ON 

THK    (JURAT    LAKES 


Canals 


The  lake  and  river  routes  are  greatly  extended  by 
means  of  systems  of  canals.  Foremost  among  these 
is  the  Erie  ('anal  extending  from  Buffalo  to  Albany  in  New  York. 
This  canal  was  completed  in  L825  and  was  the  first  great  public 
work  undertaken  in  the  United  States.  It  is  363  miles  long,  70 
feel  wide  and  7  feet  deep.  Its  opening  marked  a  new  era  in  the 
industrial   and   commercial    progress  of  the   country.      For  many 


192 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


years  this  canal  was  the  great  thoroughfare  between  New  York 
City  and  the  vast  interior,  which  now  comprises  the  states  of  Ohio, 
Indiana  and  Illinois.  It  was  the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal 
which  first  gave  New  York  its  supremacy  as  a  commercial  and 
financial  center,  because,  after  it  was  opened,  foreign  ships  could 
obtain  at  New  York  cargoes  for  their  return  trips  and  this  led 
them  to  seek  this  port  in  preference  to  Philadelphia. 

The  next  canal  in  importance 
is  that  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  This 
canal  makes  it  possible  for  the 
boats  to  pass  from  Lake  Superior, 
around  the  rapids,  into  the  St. 
Mary's  River,  and  thus  reach  the 
lower  lakes.  It  is  less  than  a  mile 
in  length  and  consists  almost  en- 
tirely of  canal  locks.  These  are 
two  in  number,  situated  side  by 
side.  They  have  a  drop  of  18  feet. 
The  largest,  called  the  Poe  Lock, 
is  800  feet  in  length,  100  feet 
wide,  and  will  admit  vessels  draw- 
ing 20  feet  of  water.  It  is  the  largest  canal  lock  in  the  world. 
This  is  used  for  the  larger  boats  and  the  older  lock  for  the 
smaller  ones.  Over  25,000  vessels  pass  through  these  locks 
during  a  season,  which  is  more  than  six  times  the  number  passing 
through  the  Suez  Canal.  The  other  canals  connected  with  the 
lake  routes  are  in  Canada,  but  are  so  closely  associated  with  the 
traffic  of  the  United  States  that  they  really  belong  to  this  system 
of  water  routes.  These  are  the  Welland  Canal,  which  connects 
Lake  Erie  with  Lake  Ontario  and  passes  around  the  falls  in  the 
Niagara  River,  and  the  system  of  canals  around  the  rapids  in  the 
St.  Lawrence.     The  combined   length  of  these   canals  in  the  St. 


oMarkinac  V 

Strait  of 3/ciri-/,      <^x/%_bois  BLANC  Ss 

J? 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


lit  3 


Lawrence  is  about  44  miles,  while  the  total  length  of  the  canals 
between  Lake  Superior  and  Montreal  ia  about  To  miles.  By  their 
means  ocean-going  ships  can  pass  from  the  lake  ports  to  the 
Atlantic  and  return  without  difficulty. 


WHALEBA<  K    COMING    OUT   OF  THE   POE    LOCK    AT   SAULT  ST.  M.UCIE 
The  power  house,  containing  the  machinery  for  operating  the  locks,  is  mi  the  left. 

A  number  of  canals  were  constructed,  connecting  Lake  Erie 
with  the  Wabash  and  Ohio  Rivers,  passing  across  the  state  of  Ohio 
by  way  of  Columbus  and  Cincinnati ;  but  the  numerous  lines  of  rail- 
way now  traversing  thai  state  have   rendered  them  almost  useless, 

except  for  the  carrying  of  coal  and  ore.  A  canal  around  the  tail- 
in  the  Ohio  at  Louisville  enables  boats  to  pass  around  this  obstruc- 
tion so  that  freight  can  be  carried  from  Pittsburg  to  the  Mississippi 
without  reloading. 


Commerce  and  industry  195 

Another  canal  of  some  importance  is  that  connecting  Lake 
( lham  plain  with  the  Hudson  River.  There  are  a  few  small  canals  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  old  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Canal  in  .Maryland  is 
still  used  for  carrying  coal,  hut  aside  from  the  Erie  Canal,  and 
those  connected  with  the  navigation  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  most  of 
these  waterways  have  fallen  into  disuse. 

The  Chicago  Drainage  Canal,  extending  from  Chicago  to  the 
Illinois  River  at  Joliet,  though  originally  constructed  for  drainage 
purposes,  is  of  such  dimension  as  to  make  it  navigable  for  the  larg- 
est lake  steamers.  By  deepening  the  Illinois  River  at  various 
points,  and  making  the  proper  connection  between  it  and  the  canal, 
a  direct  water  route  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  can 
be  secured,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  government  will  undertake 
this  work  in  the  near  future. 

The    most    important    Atlantic   routes  extend 

OCEAN  ROUTES     ,         v        v    •     t>    *  1  i»i   1    1  1   1  •    ♦ 

from  Mew   York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia  to 

the  ports  of  Europe,  and  southward  along  the  coast  to  some  of  the 
gulf  ports,  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America  ;  while  a  few  ves- 
sels go  southward  around  Cape  Horn  to  ports  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
These  routes  are  marked  on  the  ma}),  and  each  should  be  carefully 
traced.  Vessels  going  eastward,  take  a  northerly  route  and  avail 
themselves  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  escaping  the  trade  winds  which 
blow  towards  the  west;  while  those  vessels  going  westward, 
especially  sailing  vessels,  follow  the  route  which  is  in  the  path  of 
the  trade  winds  and  receive  what  benefit  they  can  from  them  on 
their  voyage.  However  the  great  ocean  liners  which  make  the 
highest  speed  between  American  and  European  ports,  pay  but  little 
attention  to  either  winds  or  currents,  but  follow  the  route  which 
covers  the  shortest  distance  between  ports. 

The  Pacific  routes  lead  from  San  Francisco  and  Seattle  to  the 
westward.  These  extend  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  t he  Philippine 
Islands  and  the   ports  of   China   and    Japan,    while   the   coastwise 


um;  commerce  and  industry 

routes  extend  northward  to  Alaska  and  southeast  to  the  ports  on 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  the  coast  of  South  America.  The 
annexation  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  the  development  of  the 
Philippines  and  our  increasing  trade  with  China  and  Japan,  are 
making  the  Pacific  Routes  more  important  every  year,  and 
when  the  Panama  Canal  is  completed,  numerous  steamers,  which 
now  cross  the  Atlantic  to  reach  Asiatic  ports,  will  change  to  the 
Pacitic  route. 

. «   ««„  .  „   -.  t»t„„      One  who  has  not  crossed  the  Atlantic  has 
AN  OCEAN   LINER     .....  .  ,  . 

little  conception  ot  the  size  and  conven- 
iences of  one  of  the  great  steamships  that  ply  between  European 
and  American  ports.  For  a  number  of  years  the  steamship  com- 
panies have  been  constructing  large  ships,  and  the  largest  were 
completed  in  1907.  These  are  the  Lusitania  and  Mauretania  of 
the  Cunard  Line.  The  Lusitania  (see  frontispiece)  is  787  feet 
long  and  the  Mauretania  a  little  larger.  Were  seven  ships  of  this 
length  placed  end  to  end  they  would  extend  over  a  mile.  From 
the  bottom  of  the  Lusitania's  hold  to  the  boat  deck  is  over  80  feet. 
The  smokestacks  rise  155  feet  above  the  hold,  and  are  taller  than 
the  spires  of  many  churches.  Were  they  laid  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion two  railway  trains  could  pass  through  them  abreast  on  double 
tracks. 

The  ship  is  driven  by  steam  turbine  engines  of  70,000  horse 
power  and  she  consumes  nearly  1000  tons  of  coal  a  day.  When 
fully  loaded  she  displaces  45,000  tons  of  water,  a  quantity  sufficient 
to  till  a  channel  30  feet  wide,  6  feet  deep  and  almost  one  and  one- 
half  miles  long,  while  the  Mauretania  displaces  over  46,000  tons. 
These  ships  are  in  every  respect  floating  palaces.  They  contain 
electric  passenger  and  freight  elevators  and  every  luxury  found  in 
the  finest  hotels  of  Europe  or  the  United  States.  They  make  the 
trip  between  New  York  and  Queenstown  in  a  little  less  than  live 
days. 


COMMERCE    A\li   [NDUSTRY  !'.)7 

COMMUNICATION      °f  almos1   0(|Ual   'mPortance   uitl'  tll("   lines 
of  transportation  arc  the  means  of  commu- 
nication by  which  business  men  arc  kept   constantly  informed  of 

the  industrial  conditions  and  the  state  of  the  markets  of  the  entire 
world.  Without  the  telegraph  and  the  telephone  it  would  be 
impossible  to  operate  our  great  railway  and  steam-hip  lines  upon 
present  plans.  Telegraph  lines  now  traverse  the  entire  country  in 
all  directions,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  hamlet  which  is  not  within 
easy  reach  of  a  telegraph  office.  In  addition  to  this,  ocean  cables 
now  cross  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  -end  a 
dispatch  to  any  part  of  the  world  and  receive  a  reply  within  a  i'cw 
hours'  time.  The  telephone  is  more  generally  used  for  communi- 
cation at  short  distances  and  saves  much  time  and  labor.  Tele- 
phone lines  extend  from  large  cities  to  surrounding  towns,  and 
even  to  many  rural  communities,  so  that  these  places  have  a  cheap 
and  easy  means  of  communication  with  the  great  centers  of  trade. 
In  addition  to  these  means  of  communication,  the  mails  trans- 
mit promptly  and  cheaply  letters,  bills,  receipts,  drafts  and  money 
orders,  and  what  is  of  almost  equal  importance,  numerous  news- 
papers and  trade  journals,  by  means  of  which  every  business  man 
can  obtain  reliable  and  very  complete  information  of  those  line-  of 
commerce  in  which  he  is  interested.  Besides,  many  localities  are 
now  favored  with  free  rural  delivery,  by  which  means  mail  is 
brought  daily  to  every  resident  along  the  route. 

QUESTIONS. 

In  what  general  direction  did  the  earliest  railroads  in  the  United 
States  extend?     In  what  direction  do  the  longest  trunk  lines  now  extend? 

What  has  made  Chicago  tin-  largesl  railroad  center  in  the  world? 

In  what  way  has  the  government  aided  in  the  construction  <>f  rail- 
roads?    Has  tin's  aid  been  beneficial  to  the  country? 

Why  diil  the  completion  of  the  Erie  Canal  form  the  beginning  of  ,-i 
new  era  in  the  commercial  history  of  the  United  State-? 

In  what  ways  does  the  government  aid  in  transportation? 


7  '^ 


2&$ 


Chapter  XVITT. 
GREAT   CITIES. 

The  early  history  of  most  of  our  large  cities  miirlit 

TflPATTOW 

lead  one  to  think  that  their  beginnings  were  acei- 
dental,  and  while  it  is  difficult  to  say  why  sonic  cities  are  located 
just  where  they  are.  it  is,  nevertheless,  a  well -recognized  fact  that 
the  location  of  most  was  determined  by  geographical  condition-. 
Some  are  dependent  upon  one  set  of  conditions  and  others  upon 
another.      Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  the  following: 

Transportation  by  water  is  successful  only  when 

Good  Harbors  i      i  -•         i  •  ,' 

vessels     have    sate    and    convenient    anchorage ; 

consequently,  those  towns  which  were  first  built  on  enclosed  arms 
of  the  sea,  having  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  admit  the  largest 
vessels,  possessed  great  advantage  in  trade.  Ships  sought  their 
ports  and  people  from  other  towns  and  the  surrounding  country 
came  to  them  to  exchange  commodities.  This  gave  employment 
to  a  large  number  who  must  necessarily  live  near  their  work, 
and  thus  the  city  was  started.  One  line  of  business  attracted 
another  and  the  city  continued  to  grow.  On  the  Atlantic  coast, 
Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore  are  the  best  illus- 
trations of  cities  built  on  good  harbors,  and  San  Francisco  and 
Seattle,  on  the  Pacific,  owe  their  prosperity  to  a  similar  cause. 

Many  country  towns  began  from 

Convenient  Meeting  Places     .,„,,„.  ..i  P  /•  •  i  -n 

&  apparently  trivial   causes.       1  hey 

were  convenient  stopping  places  at  the  end  of  a  day's  journey,  or 
where  a  road  had  to  cross  a  river  by  a  lord  or  a  ferry.  People 
could  meet  at  such  places  more  conveniently  than  at  any  other 
place  in  the  vicinity,  and   trade   sprang  up.      As  the    population 

199 


200  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

increased,  business  was   extended,  requiring:  more  people,  and  the 

settlement  became  a  town.     In  certain  localities,  such  towns  often 

grew  into  cities.     A  number  of  our  small  inland  cities  staited  in 

this  way. 

Many  of  the  cities  of  the  New  England  and  the 
Water  Power    North  Atlantic  Sta!es  are  built  on  sites  where 

water  power  is  abundant.  Such  are  Lowell  and  Fall  River  in 
Massachusetts;  Nashua,  N.  II.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  a  number  of 
towns  on  the  fall  line ;  while  Minneapolis  illustrates  the  same 
principle  of  location  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

In  our  early  history,  many  military  posts 
Military  Stations      were    established   at  junction    points   and 

portages.      These  were  found  to  be  safe  and  convenient  places  for 

trading  stations,  and  business  was  drawn  to  the  localities  where 

they   were    established.       When    the    military    Mas    removed,    the 

trading  post   remained   and  grew  into  a  town   and   then  to  a  city. 

Detroit,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  are  illustrations  of  cities  that  began 

as  military  posts. 

Pittsburg  owes  its  growth  and  prosperity  to  the  pres- 

°      ence  of  coal  and  iron,  which  made  it  a  convenient  and 

cheap  manufacturing  center.     Added  to  this  was  its  advantage  of 

being  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the   Ohio,  which,  before  the 

extension  of  railroads   into   the   interior  of  the   country,  gave  it 

prestige  as  a  trading  center.     Many  cities  in  the  coal  regions  of 

Pennsylvania,   Leadville,   Colo.,  Butte,  Mont.,   and  a  number  of 

other  thriving  cities  owe  their  growth  to  mining  interests. 

A  number  of  in- 
Meeting"  Places  of  Land  and  Water  Routes    i      ■■    cjtjeg    nave 

grown  up  at  convenient  meeting  places  of  land  and  water  routes. 
Duluth  affords  the  best  connection  for  the  railroads  of  Northern 
Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  with  the  steamers  on  the  Great 
Lakes.     While    Buffalo   affords  an   equally   convenient    place   for 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  201 

such  connection  at  the  lower  end  of  the  lakes.  Besides,  the  con- 
struction of  the  Erie  Canal  early  gave  this  city  an  important 
position  :is  a  place  of  trans-shipment  of  cargoes  from  lake  vessels 

to  the  canal  boats.  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Milwaukee  and  Chicago 
each  owe  much  of  their  prosperity  to  similar  causes.  Numerous 
lines  of  railway  meet  in  each  of  these  cities,  and  the  traffic  between 
them  and  the  lake  steamers  is  extensive.  New  Orleans  is  an 
important  port  for  the  trans-shipment  of  cargoes  from  the  Missis- 
sippi steamers  to  ocean-going  vessels  and  from  these  vessels  to  the 
river  steamers. 

Some  inland  cities  owe  their  prosperity  to 
Railway  Centers      the  fect  thftt  they  were  Iocated  :lt  a  con. 

venient  point  for  numerous  railways  to  meet.  Indianapolis,  South 
Bend  and  Denver  are  good  illustrations  of  such  centers. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  causes  which  have  led 

Other  Causes    .    ,\     ,    -u-        e   •*•       4.  •  +       q< 

to  the  building  of  cities  at  numerous  points,     St. 

Paul  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Mississippi,  and  Albany  is 

similarly  situated  on  the  Hudson.     New  Orleans  occupies  a  good 

site  for  a  river  port  near  the  sea.     The  building  of  the  Eads  Bridge 

transformed  East  St.  Louis  from  a  small  town  to  an  important  city 

and    railroad    center.     The    construction   of  a   bridge    across    the 

Missouri  at  Kansas  City  also  contributed  much  to  that  city's  growth. 

The  consolidation  of  manufacturers  and  other  industries  under  gnat 

corporations  that  erect  extensive  factories  also  contributes  to  the 

growth  of  many  cities,  and  causes  the  foundation  of  others.     These 

plants  require  thousands  of  workmen,  all  of  whom  must    live  near 

their  work,  consequently  houses  are   built  near  the  factories,  the 

wants  of  the  people  bring  other  industries   and   a  town    is   soon 

established. 

While  each  city  has  its  own  peculiarities  of 

PLAN  OF  A  CITY       ,       ,  .  .  ;  .  .        .      ,   .      .      . 

structure  which  are  determined   by  its  loca- 
tion, in  their  general  plan  all  American  cities  are  similar. 





COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  ?f>3 

The  outline  of  a  city  is  determined  almost  out. rely  b\ 
its  site.  Boston  occupies  land  surrounding  a  very 
irregular  body  of  water,  and  has  the  most  irregular  outline  of  any 
large  city  in  the  country.  New  York  originally  occupied  an 
island  and  conformed  to  its  contour,  and  in  its  extension  has  kept 
its  form  intact,  so  that  the  city  is  an  approximate  rectangle,  with  its 
greatest  length  from  north  to  south.  Since  the  west  side  of  the 
city  is  bounded  by  the  Hudson,  its  outline  is  regular  ;  but  the  extru- 
sion of  the  city  eastward  is  greater  in  some  places  than  in  others, 
and  its  eastern  boundary  is  quite  irregular.  Philadelphia  follows 
the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill,  which  gives  it  quite  a  long  extension 
on  the  west  side.  Chicago  is  a  rectangle,  with  its  greatest  length 
on  Lake  Michigan,  and  inland  cities,  whose  sites  are  not  affected 
by  bodies  of  water,  are  generally  regular  in  outline. 

In  a  great  measure  the  streets  of  a  city  must  conform  to 
the  shape  of  the  site.  Cities  built  upon  an  irregular  site 
cannot  have  streets  as  regularly  laid  out  as  others ;  new  cities  are 
more  regular  than  old  ones.  Philadelphia  was  the  first  American 
city  whose  streets  were  properly  planned.  They  run  at  righl 
angles  and  are  so  numbered  that  the  number  of  any  building  at 
once  tells  its  location.  This  is  the  proper  method  of  laying  out  the 
streets  and  numbering  the  lots,  and  is  pursued  in  all  the  newer 
cities  of  the  country. 

The  modern  method  of  laying  out  a  city  is  to  run  the  streets 
at  right  angles  if  possible  ;  to  name  those  running  in  one  direction 
and  number  the  cross  streets.  Usually  an  important  street  through 
the  center  of  the  city  is  taken  as  the  line  from  which  the  numbers 
extend  either  north  and  south  or  east  and  west,  as  the  ease  may  be. 
The  blocks  are  numbered  by  hundreds;  all  of  the  numbers  in  the 
first  block  running  from  one  to  one  hundred  ;  those  in  the  second 
from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred,  and  so  on.  By  this  met  hod. 
one  acquainted  with  the  city  can  immediately  tell  the  location  of 


204  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

the  building.  Formerly  the  lots  were  numbered  in  regular  order, 
from  end  to  end  of  the  street,  without  regard  to  the  number  of 
blocks.  Unfortunately  in  some  cities  both  methods  of  number- 
ing are  in  use,  which  makes  it  impossible  to  determine  location  by 
number. 

Every  city  is  divided  into  a  number  of  well  defined  portions, 
each  of  which  is  distinguished  by  some  leading  feature.  Except  in 
mining  towns,  the  shipping  portion  is  first  determined  upon.  If 
the  city  is  on  a  navigable  body  of  water,  this  is  where  the  most 
convenient  and  commodious  harbor  can  be  made.  In  large  sea  and 
lake  ports  it  often  extends  for  a  long  distance  along  the  water  front, 
and  where  the  city  is  at  the  mouth  of  a  navigable  river,  the  ship- 
ping portion  may  also  extend  along  both  banks  for  several  miles,  as 
in  Chicago.  If  the  city  is  a  railway  center,  the  shipping  portion  is 
in  the  locality  where  commodious  railroad  yards  and  freight  houses 
can  be  most  conveniently  and  economically  erected.  In  large  cities 
the  industries  often  exert  a  strong  influence  in  locating  shipping 
portions,  and  instead  of  one  there  may  be  several. 

The  manufacturing  portion  is  always  situated  as  near  the  ship- 
ping portion  as  possible,  in  order  to  save  unnecessary  expense  in 
transportation.  Cities  having  an  extensive  shipping  business  may 
have  more  than  one  shipping  portion,  but  in  such  cases,  industries 
of  the  same  sort  have  a  tendency  to  seek  the  same  locality,  there- 
fore we  find  furniture  factories  in  one  locality,  boot  and  shoe  fac- 
tories in  another,  and  iron  foundries  and  machine  shops  in  a  third. 

As  near  as  possible  to  the  shipping  and  manufacturing  por- 
tions is  the  exchange,  or  "downtown  "portion.  This  is  usually  the 
most  important  part  of  the  city,  and  is  divided  into  wholesale  and 
retail  districts,  the  former  being  near  the  shipping  portion.  Here, 
in  addition  to  the  wholesale  and  retail  stores,  we  find  the  large 
office  buildings  and  most  of  the  public  edifices,  as  the  post-office, 
city  hail,  court  house,  and  such  other  similar  institutions  as  the  city 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  205 

may  contain.  In  some  cities  public  libraries  are  located  within  the 
business  portion,  while  in  other-  they  are  in  more  retired  sections. 
Conveniently  located  to  all  business  enterprises  are  found  a  number 
of  banks,  and  sometimes  a  United  States  sub-treasury  office.  The 
buildings  in  the  exchange  portion  are  large,  and,  in  such  cities  as 
New  York  and  Chicago,  very  tall,  some  of  them  exceeding  thirty 
stories  in  height.  The  streets  are  broad,  and  usually  paved  with 
granite  blocks  to  enable  them  to  withstand  the  heavy  teaming. 

The  residence  portions  are  situated  around  the  other  portions 
of  the  city,  and  to  be  desirable  should  afford  good  drainage,  plenty 
of  sunlight  and  fresh  air,  and  be  interspersed  with  boulevards  and 
parks.  The  portions  vary  widely  in  these  respects,  and  each  por- 
tion is  sought  by  the  class  of  people  to  whose  means  and  tastes  it 
is  best  suited.  Some  sections  are  occupied  by  those  who  have 
acquired  great  wealth.  These  sections  are  characterized  by  expen- 
sive residence's,  beautiful  streets  and  numerous  parks  ;  other  sec- 
tions are  occupied  by  people  who,  though  in  good  circumstance-, 
do  not  care  to  live  in  so  expensive  a  style.  In  these  sections  are 
many  large  apartment  houses  divided  into  "  flats."  The  portions 
occupied  by  the  poorer  class,  are  usually  quite  near,  if  not  within, 
the  manufacturing  or  exchange  centers,  and  are  densely  crowded. 
In  such  cities  as  New  York  and  Chicago  various  localities  in  the  resi- 
dence portions  are  occupied  wholly  by  people  of  foreign  extraction 
who  have  emigrated  to  this  country  and  still  maintain  the  language 
and  customs  which  they  used  in  their  fatherland. 

The  transportation  of  the  inhabitants  to  and  from  their  places 
of  business  always  has  been  a  serious  problem,  and  as  the  cities  in- 
crease in  size  it  becomes  still  more  perplexing.  All  lines  of  rail- 
way which  center  in  the  large  cities  run  local  trains  at  intervals  of 
a  few  minutes  from  the  suburbs  to  their  central  stations.  Street 
car  lines  lead  from  all  parts  of  the  city,  and  from  many  suburbs  to 
the  business  portion,  and  in  New  Yrork,  Chicago  and  a  few  othei 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  207 

cities,  these  are  supplemented  by  several  lines  of  elevated  railway. 
But  during  the  morning  and  evening  hours  all  means  of  transporta- 
tion are  taxed  to  their  utmost.  The  streets  in  the  business  center 
of  every  large  city  become  very  much  overcrowded,  and,  in  order 
to  avoid  this,  Boston  and  New  York  have  constructed  underground 
railways,  known  as  subways,  which  pass  under  the  streets  of  the 
most  crowded  portions.  In  New  York  a  subway  system  which  can 
transport  over  300,000  passengers  a  day  has  been  completed,  and 
this  to  quite  an  extent  relieves  the  overcrowding. 

Nearly  every  city  has  one  or  more  parks  open  to  the  public  as 
pleasure  grounds.  Such  cities  as  New  York,  Chicago  and  St. 
Louis  have  several  largo  parks  located  in  different  parts  of  the  city 
and,  in  addition  to  these,  numerous  small  ones  so  located  that  they 
enable  the  people  of  the  most  crowded  portions  to  reach  them  with- 
out traveling  a  long  distance.  The  schools  and  churches  are  usually 
distributed  throughout  the  residence  portions,  so  as  to  accommo- 
date the  people  to  the  best  advantage. 

There    are    a    number    of    cities    on   the    Atlantic 
and    Pacific    coasts    that    are    important    seaports. 
Among  them  are  : 

Next  to  New  York,  Boston  is  our  most  important  sea- 
port. It  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  country, 
though  it  is  not  as  large  as  that  of  New  York.  Previous  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  Erie  Canal,  Boston  was  the  leading  port  of  the  coun- 
try, but  the  opening  of  that  waterway  gave  New  York  an  advantage 
because,  it  brought  to  it  a  large  trade  that  before  the  construction 
of  railways  Boston  could  not  reach.  Nearly  all  of  the  export  and 
import  trade  of  New  England  is  carried  on  through  Boston  and  in 
addition  to  this,  it  receives  for  export  a  large  amount  of  produce 
from  the  west.  A  number  of  important  lines  of  railway  center  in 
the  city,  and  each  has  good  western  connections.  Its  ocean  routes 
lead  to  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Hamburg  and  important  seaports  on 


208 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


the  Mediterranean,  while  its  coastwise  trade  is  very  extensive. 
Boston  is  one  of  the  great  financial  centers  of  the  country,  and  has 
contributed  much  of  the  capital  used  in  establishing  cities  and  in- 
dustries in  the  West.  Its  most  important  local  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  goods,  printing  and  publishing,  sugar 


POST-OFFICE  SQUARE,  BOSTON 

refining  and  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes 


It  is  also  the 
first  leather  and  wool  market  of  the  country. 

Baltimore  is  situated  near  the  head  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  180  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  It  has  a  fine 
harbor  and  carries  on  an  extensive  export  trade.  It  is  the  great- 
est oyster  market  in  the  world,  and  the  gathering,  canning  and 


Baltimore 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  209 

shipping  of  oysters  is  one  of*  its  most  important  industries.      It  is 

also -an  important  tobacco  market  and  has  extensive  iron  and  steel 

works.     In  exports  it  ranks  fifth  among  the  cities  of  the  country. 

Philadelphia  is   100   miles  from  the  ocean,   ltut 

Philadelphia     lh(i  Delaware  Riverj  upon  whirh  it  is  Bituated, 

affords  it  a  good  harbor,  and  the  depth  of  the  river  i>  such  as  t<> 
admit  of  its  navigation  by  large  ocean  steamers,  even  at  low  tide. 
In  the  early  history  of  the  country  this  was  a  much  more  impor- 
tant commercial  center  than  either  New  York  or  Baltimore,  but 
its  geographical  position  was  not  such  as  to  enable  it  to  maintain 
its  supremacy  after  the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal  and  numer- 
ous lines  of  railway,  which  sought  New  York  and  Baltimore.  Its 
principal  exports  are  food  stuffs,  iron  and  steel,  petroleum,  coal, 
cotton,  leather  goods  and  woolens.  It  is  an  important  manufac- 
turing center  and  its  industrial  interests  greatly  exceed  those  of  a 
commercial  nature.  It  has  extensive  woolen  mills  and  is  the 
largest  carpet  manufacturing  center  in  the  world.  While  it  is 
situated  on  several  important  lines  of  railway,  they  all  pass 
through  it  and  terminate  in  New  York. 

This  is  the  great  seaport  for  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Like  Philadelphia  it  is  situated  on  a  river  more 
than  100  miles  from  the  sea.  At  one  time,  it  was  thought  that 
New  Orleans  would  become  the  leading  commercial  city  of  the 
country,  but  the  construction  of  railways  deprived  the  Mississippi 
of  much  of  its  importance  as  a  commercial  highway.  The  city's 
most  important  trade  is  in  cotton,  of  which  it  exports  large  quanti- 
ties to  all  of  the  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast  and  to  Europe.  The 
commercial  interests  of  New  Orleans  were  greatly  advanced  by 
the  improvement  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River  under  the 
direction  of  Capt.  James  B.  Eads,  who,  by  the  means  of  jetties 
caused  the  current  to  excavate  a  channel  to  a  depth  of  thirty  feet, 
thus  allowing  the  largest  ocean-going  vessels  to  reach  \ew  Orleans 


210 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


without  difficulty.     The  city  is  now  developing  an  important  trade 

with  Mexico  and  the  Central  American  states. 

This  has  long  been  the  most  important  port  on 
the  Pacific  coast.     It  is  situated  on  one  of  the 


San  Francisco 


FERRY  HOUSE,  SAN  FRANCISCO 

finest  harbors  in  the  world,  which  is  deep  enough  to  admit  the 
largest  vessels  regardless  of  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide.  Its 
thriving  commerce  is  carried  on  with  the  ports  of  China  and  Japan, 
and  in  addition  to  this  it  has  a  greatly  increasing  trade  with 
Hawaii  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  Its  exports  consist  largely 
of  wheat-flour,  fruits,  leather,  wines  and  meat  products.  Lines  of 
steamers  also  connect  it  with  most  of  the  Pacific  ports  of  South 
America,  as  well  as  all  of  the  important  coast  towns  of  the  Pacific 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  211 

States.     It  is  also  the  meeting  place  of   several   transcontinental 

lines  of  railway. 

Seattle,  situated  on    Puget   Sound,   has  an  exceptional 

Seattle  • 

harbor,  and  is  now  the  terminus  of  two  transcontinental 

lines  of  railway..  It  is  rapidly  developing  into  an  important  sea- 
port, and  has  lines  of  steamers  making  direct  connection  with  the 
important  cities  of  China  and  Japan,  and  in  its  trans-Pacific  trade 
reaches  eastward  as  far  as  Liverpool  and  London.  It  is  also  the 
headquarters  lor  all  the  lines  of  steamers  for  Alaskan  ports.  The 
rapid  growth  of  the  business  interests  of  this  city  during  the  last 
decade,  has  been  remarkable,  and  it  bids  fair  to  become  the  most 
important  commercial  port  of  the  Pacific  coast.  (For  a  view  of  the 
harbor,  see  page  42.) 

The  commerce  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  carried   on 
between   a   number   of  cities   that   have   attained 
their  importance  largely  on  account  of  this  traffic.      These  are  : 

Duluth,  situated  at  the  western  extremity  of  Lake 
Superior,  is  at  the  head  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Though  a 
comparatively  young  city,  it  has  assumed  an  important  position  in 
the  commerce  of  the  country.  Extensive  ore-docks  and  grain 
elevators,  from  which  ore  and  grain  are  loaded  upon  the  boats  to 
be  taken  to  ports  on  the  lower  lakes  are  located  here.  Duluth 
furnishes  a  natural  lake  port  for  the  grain  of  Northern  Minnesota 
and  the  Dakotas.  Much  of  the  coal  and  other  heavy  freight,  which 
is  shipped  from  these  regions  into  the  Eastern  states,  is  also  sent 
to  Duluth  by  boat. 

This   is  a   city  of  300,000  inhabitants,   situated   on 
Milwaukee     (ho  wegtern   sh()lv  of  Lake   Michigan,   eighty-five 

miles  north  of  Chicago.  It  has  extensive  iron  works,  and  the 
largest  breweries  in  the  country.  Its  lake  traffic  i^.  next  to 
Chicago,  the  most  important  on  Lake  Michigan.  Railroad  ferries 
connect  this  city  with  Grand  Haven   and  one  or  two   other  towns 


212  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  lake.  It  is  also  an  important  center 
for  railways  running  through  Wisconsin,  and  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
thriving  agricultural  country. 

Situated  on  the  Detroit  River,  Detroit  is  a  convenient 
stopping  place  for  all  boats  passing  between  Lakes 
Huron  and  Erie.  Upon  a  large  line  of  boat  travel,  it  is  the  most 
important  point  between  Buffalo  and  Chicago,  or  Duluth.  Many 
boats  pass  the  river  without  making  the  port  at  Detroit,  and  it  is 
said  that  more  tonnage  passes  this  city  than  any  other  point  in  the 
world,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  season  of  navigation 
extends  through  only  a  portion  of  the  yeai . 

Cleveland  is  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  Ohio 
and  the  lake  region.  Situated  on  the  southern  shore 
of  Lake  Erie,  it  has  an  excellent  natural  harbor  and  is  the  center  of 
grain  trade  and  coal  and  iron-ore  shipping.  The  city  also  has  a 
number  of  important  manufactories,  is  a  railway  center  and  a  con- 
venient shipping  port  for  much  of  the  freight  that  finds  its  way 
from  New  York,  but  especially  from  Pennsylvania,  to  the  ports  on 
the  upper  lakes.  A  large  portion  of  the  iron-ore  from  the  mines 
in  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin  is  transferred  from  boats  to  cars  at 
Cleveland.  The  Ohio  Canal  connects  the  city  with  the  Ohio  River 
and  affords  an  important  outlet  to  the  Mississippi. 

The  importance  of  Buffalo  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Eric 
has  already  been  mentioned.  It  has  an  extensive 
trade,  and  is  the  most  convenient  port  for  the  trans-shipment  <  !' 
goods  from  lake  steamers  to  the  Erie  Canal  and  to  railways.  The 
amount  of  freight  brought  down  the  lakes  and  reshipped  from  this 
point  gives  employment  to  a  large  number  of  people. 

A  few  cities  located  upon  the  Mississippi  and  its 

RIVER  PORTS  • 

tributaries  are  important  river  ports. 

This    city    is    situated    on    the    west    bank    of  the 
Mississippi  just  below  the  confluence  of  the  Mis- 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  213 

souri.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important  cities  in  the 
Union,  and  now  has  a  population  estimated  at  7oo,o00.  It  is  the 
great  commercial  center  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  is  the  distrib- 
uting point  for  the  territory  lying  to  the  south  and  southwest.  Next 
to  Chicago,  it  is  the  most  important  city  in  the  interior.  Lines  of 
steamers  ply  between  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans  throughout  the 
year,  and  during  the  summer  months  the  traffic  is  extended  to  the 
northern  river  ports.  It  is  a  great  grain  and  flour  market ;  also 
handles  large  quantities  of  tobacco,  cotton,  cotton-seed  oil  and  sugar, 
and  contains  important  glass  works,  breweries,  flour  mills  and 
car  shops.  The  city  is  connected  with  East  St.  Louis  by  the  cele- 
brated Lads  Bridge,  which  is  one  of  the  most  noted  of  its  kind  in 
the  world.  The  erection  of  this  bridge  has  caused  numerous  lines 
of  railway  to  center  in  East  ^t.  Louis,  which  is  a  thriving  and 
important  suburb,  although  in  another  state.  The  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase Exposition,  held  in  St.  Louis  in  11)04,  greatly  increased  the 
city's  business  during  the  years  of  preparation  for  the  Fair. 

This  city  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Mississippi, 

St  Paul  •  • 

and  is  the  great  railway  center  of  the  Northwest.      It 

has  numerous  factories,  some  flouring  mills,  and  has  become  an  im- 
portant wholesale  and  distributing  point  for  the  great  states  lying 
to  the  west. 

This  city  is  on  the  Missouri  River,  and  is  a  great 

Kansas  City         •,  .  t*     •       +    «    • 

J       ran  way  center.      Its  river  traffic  is  not  as  lmpor- 

tantasthat  of  some  cities  of  smaller  size,  but  its  geographical  por- 
tion is  such  as  to  make  its  railway  connections  far  reaching.  While 
contending  against  natural  disadvantages,  it  has  become  one  of  the 
most  important  business  centers  in  the  central  portion  of  the  country. 
It  has  a  large  traffic  in  live-stock,  and  in  meat-packing  ranks  next  to 
( Ihicago. 

This  is  the  most  important  city  in  the  Ohio  Valley? 
Cincinnati  -,  .       ,     ...      ,rl    AT. 

and  carries  on  an  extensive  river  tramc.    the  Miaim 


214  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

Canal  gives  it  a  water  connection  with  Lake  Erie,  and  it  also  is  the 
center  of  a  number  of  trunk  lines  of  railway.  It  has  important 
pork-packing  establishments,  and  extensive  manufactories,  among 
them  the  largest  soap  factory  in  the  country. 

Situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monon- 
rittSDurg'  gajie]a  Rivers,  Pittsburg  is  practically  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  Ohio.  Its  position  in  the  center  of  the  coal 
and  iron  mines  of  the  region  has  made  it  a  city  of  great  manufac- 
turing importance.  It  is  also  one  of  the  largest  shipping  points 
for  coal,  iron  and  steel.  The  leading  industries  are  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel,  and  glass.  The  presence  of  natural  gas 
and  its  close  proximity  to  the  ore  fields  have  enabled  Pittsburg  to 
secure  an  abundance  of  the  most  suitable  fuel  for  manufacturing 
purposes  at  comparatively  little  expense,  and  this  advantage  has 
contributed  very  much  to  its  industrial  development. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  are  there  so  few  seaports  on  the  Pacific  coast?  Account  for 
their  location. 

What  has  given  Duluth  its  commercial  importance? 

Why  do  similar  industries  locate  near  each  other  in  a  city?  Why 
would  it  not  be  an  advantage  to  have  the  wholesale  and  the  retail  estab- 
lishments in  the  same  locality? 

What  has  made  Boston  the  most  important  city  of  New  England? 

Why  are  there  no  great  cities  in  Iowa,  Nebraska  or  Kansas? 

What  are  the  most  important  industries  in  each  of  the  following- 
cities  :  Baltimore,  Buffalo,  New  Orleans,  Minneapolis,  Providence? 

What  important  cities  in  the  United  States  have  increased  in  popula- 
tion and  wealth  because  of  the  building  of  bridges  or  canals  near  them? 


Chapter  XIX. 
NEW   YORK   AND    CHICAGO. 

New  York  and  Chicago  are  our  two  most  important  commer- 
cial and  financial  centers,  and  in  point  of  location,  plan  and  other 
features,  follow  very  closely  the  general  plan  of  a  city  outlined  in 
the  last  chapter.  While  it  would  he  of  interest  to  describe  these 
cities  fully,  the  purpose  of  this  work  will  admit  of  a  description  of 
only  their  commercial  and  industrial  features. 


LOCATION 
AND  EXTENT 


NEW   YORK. 

New  York  is  the  largest  city  in  America,  and. 
after  London,  the  largest  in  the  world.  It  is 
located  on  New  York  Bay  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson.  In  its  outline  it  is  rectangular.  Its  greatest  extent  from 
north  to  south  is  about  thirty-three  miles,  its  greatest  width  about 
fourteen  miles,  its  area  is  327  square  miles,  and  its  population 
about  3,500,000.  The  western  boundary  follows  the  Hudson  and 
the  Channel  to  the  west  of  Staten  Island  and  is  comparatively 
regular,  but  the  eastern  boundary  is  very  irregular.  As  now  con- 
stituted, the  city  includes  New  York  proper,  Brooklyn,  Long 
Island  City  and  Staten  Island.  For  purposes  of  administration  it 
is  divided  into  live  boroughs,  as  follows:  Manhattan,  Bronx, 
Queens,  Brooklyn  and  Richmond.  Manhattan  coincides  with 
Manhattan  Island  and  is  the  most  densely  populated,  and  contains 
most  of  the  great  financial  and  commercial  establishments. 

The  first  settlements   in  New    York    were    made   on   the 

PLAN 

southern   end   of  Manhattan   Island,   where    there    were 

good    facilities    for    constructing    piers.       This    determined    the 

215 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


217 


shipping  portion  of  the  town,  and  the  other  portions  are  in  the 
most  convenient,  adjacent  localities.  Good  harbor  facilities  on 
Long  Island  caused  the  village  of  Brooklyn  to  he  started  there. 


WASHINGTON    BUILDING   AND  PRODUCE    EXCHANGE,   NEW   5TORK 

The  shipping  portions  of  the  city  proper  extend  along  both  shores 
of  the  lower  part  of  Manhattan,  and  along  the  water  front  of 
Brooklyn.     Manhattan  alone   contains  nine   miles  of  docks,   and 


218  COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 

this  does  not  begin  to  exhaust  the  frontage.  On  the  west  bank  of 
the  Hudson,  in  Jersey  City,  are  other  large  docks  connected  with 
the  railways  that  have  their  eastern  terminals  there.  The  most 
important  of  these  lines  are  the  Pennsylvania,  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
and  the  Erie. 

There  are  a  number  of  manufacturing  portions.  Some  are  on 
the  water  front  in  Brooklyn  where  the  great  sugar  refineries  are 
located ;  some  are  in  the  Borough  of  Queens,  and  others  are 
located  outside  of  the  city  limits  in  Jersey  City  and  Hoboken. 
The  land  adjoining  the  shipping  portion  on  Manhattan  has  become 
too  valuable  for  other  purposes  to  admit  of  manufacturing  in  that 
part  of  the  city. 

The  exchange  portion  of  New  York  is  crowded  into  the 
southern  part  of  Manhattan.  Broadway,  from  Chambers  to  Tenth 
Street,  is  occupied  by  wholesale  houses,  as  are  most  of  the  streets 
near  the  docks  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Island.  The  principal 
retail  streets  running  north  and  south  are  Broadway,  north  of 
Tenth,  Sixth  Avenue  and  the  Bowery  ;  and  running  east  and  west, 
Fourteenth,  Twenty-third  and  Forty-second.  Broad  and  Wall 
streets  are  the  great  financial  centers,  and  contain  many  imposing 
buildings. 

The  exchange  portion  of  the  city  is  characterized  by  magnifi- 
cent office  and  public  buildings,  some  of  which  are  over  thirty 
stories  Irish.  Amonsr  the  most  noted  of  these  are  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  the  Stock  Exchange,  the  Mills  Building,  the  Postofnce, 
the  buildings  of  the  Equitable  Life  Insurance  Company,  and  the 
City  Improvement  Company's  building,  thirty-three  stories  high. 
Another  notable  structure  at  the  junction  of  Broadway  and  Fifth 
Avenue,  is  the  "Flat  Iron,"  a  three-sided  building  twenty-two 
stories  high. 

The  residence  portions  are  in  the  northern  part  of  Manhattan 
and  in  Brooklyn,  south  and  east  of  the  shipping  and  manufacturing 
portions,  and  in  the  Borough  of  Queens.     There  are,  also,  many 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


219 


beautiful  suburbs  extending  for  miles  up  the  Hudson,  and  others 

in  New  Jersey,  beyond  the  business  portion  of  Jersey  City. 

With  her  great  business  interests  crowded 
TRANSPORTATION     into  the  Qma]]  gpace  ^  they  occupv>  the 

most  of  the  people  reside  away  from  the  business  centers,  and   tin- 


Dfr 

\I     * t  c 

mj?  Dl^HNHJ  jib? 

^1   .— —- 

BfP5 

\  m^B      tB>  ■ 

■i'"^*-!  t  ~ 

l$&\^\J&w 

|i.n«iiiPifti^ 

=  m 

e^ppilf- 

■  . 

;  *•   ,  .  - 

ELEVATED   RAILWAY,  NEW    5TOBK 

problem  of  transportation  has,  for  a  long  time,  been  a  difficult  one. 
Car  lines  occupy  all  the  principal  streets  leading  north  from  the 
business  district,  and  four  lines  of  elevated  railway  extend  from 
the  extreme  southern  point  of  the  island  to  the  northern  limits  of 
the  city.  An  important  subway  system,  connecting  Broadway  and 
Fifth  Avenue,  exceeds  twenty  miles  in  extent,  and  numerous 
ferries   ply  between   New  York   proper,  Jersey  City,  Hoboken  and 


220  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

Weehawken,  and  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn  on  the  East 
River.  Two  suspension  bridges,  the  Brooklyn  and  the  East  River 
Bridge,  connect  New  York  with  Brooklyn,  and  another  is  in  the 
process  of  construction.  But,  with  all  of  these  facilities,  the 
crowded  condition  of  the  cars  and  ferries  during  the  "rush"  hours, 
at  morning  and  evening,  when  people  are  going  to  and  returning 
from  work,  is  not  equalled  in  any  other  city.  Tunnels,  for  elec- 
tric cars,  to  connect  New  York  with  Jersey  City,  are  completed 
or  under  construction,  and  another  system,  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Railway,  connects  Jersey  City  with  New  York  and  then  with 
Brooklyn.  This  is  the  most  extensive  enterprise  of  its  kind  ever 
attempted  in  America.  When  completed,  it  will  admit  the  trains 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Railway  to  each  of  these  cities  and  save 
an  immense  amount  of  delay  and  inconvenience.  The  New  York 
Central  &  Hudson  River  Railway  enters  the  city  direct  from 
the  north. 

New  York  is  the  port  through  which  most  of 

MANUFACTURES    +,  ,  i         '      r +i 

the  emigrants  pass,  and  many  ot  them  remain 

in  the  city ;  consequently  its  population  contains  people  from 
many  nationalities.  For  this  reason,  there  is  an  abundance  of 
cheap  labor,  and  this  is  one  of  the  important  conditions  which 
determine  the  variety  and  character  of  the  city's  leading  manufac- 
tures. New  York  is  the  largest  manufacturing  center  in  the  coun- 
try, exceeding,  by  fifty  per  cent,  the  manufactures  of  any  other 
city  in  America.  The  manufactures  are  of  great  variety,  almost 
everything  wanted  in  a  civilized  country  being  made  here.  The 
most  important  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  clothing,  which 
amounts  to  over  two  hundred  million  dollars  a  year.  .  A  large  part 
of  this  work  is  done  in  tenement  houses  by  cheap  labor,  in  a  man- 
ner similar  to  that  in  European  cities,  from  which  many  of  the 
workmen  came.  Other  leading  industries  are  the  refining  of 
sugar,  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  wares,  printing  and  pub- 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY  221 

lishing,  manufacturing  malt  liquors,  various  forms  <it"  tobacco  and 

cigars,  and  the  roasting  and  grinding  of  coffee. 

New  York  is   the  greatest   commercial    confer   of  the 
TRADE 

Western  Hemisphere.    The  Harbor  has  over  a  hundred 

square  miles  of  anchorage,  and  nearly  4000  vessels  engaged  in 
foreign  trade  (dear  from  the  dock>  each  year.  The  combined  ton- 
nage of  this  trade  exceeds  eighl  million,  which  is  only  a  little  less 
than  that  of  the  foreign  trade  of  London.  The  coast  wise  trade  Is 
even  larger  than  the  foreign,  and  the  two  combined  make  New 
York  the  largest  seaport  in  the  world.  Fifty-five  percent  of  the 
imports,  and  nearly  three-fifths  of  the  exports  of  the  United  States 
pass  through  this  port. 

Steamship  lines  connect  New  York  with  all  the  important  com- 
mercial cities  of  Europe  and  South  America,  and  with  some  in  Asia. 
The  peculiar  location  of  the  city  gives  it  great  advantage  in  export 
trade  and  with  the  great  grain  states  of  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
since,  by  means  of  the  Great  Lakes,  Erie  Canal,  and  Hudson  River, 
freight  can  be  transported  from  this  section  by  water  much  more 
cheaply  than  by  rail.  The  prestige  as  a  commercial  center,  which 
New  York  acquired  soon  after  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal, 
also  directed  lines  of  railway  to  it,  and  its  railway  traffic  has 
become  very  large.  Besides  this.  New  York  is  the  location  of  the 
great  stock  market  of  the  country,  whose  daily  transactions  arc 
measured  by  millions  of  dollars. 

CHICAGO. 

Chicago,  next  to  New  York,  is  the  largest  city 
LOCATION  ...  °  '  r.  .      .,     , '  T    . '        .  .  : 

of  the  country.      It  is  situated  on  Lake  Michi- 

AND  EXTENT         gaQ  an(J  fche  Chicag0  I»iver>     Tho  city  is  1)uih 

upon  a  comparatively  low  and  level  tract  of  land,  and  extends  along 
the  lake  front  24  miles  from  north  to  smith.  In  width  it  varies 
from  six  to  ten  mile>,  and  has  an  area  of  about   li>0  square  miles. 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


223 


Its  population  is  about  two  millions.  The  city  is  divided  by  the 
Chicago  River  into  three  distinct  localities  known  as  the  North, 
West  and  South  Sides.  Of  these,  the  South  Side  is  the  mosl 
important  from  a  commercial  and  business  point  of  view  ;  it  has 
also  the  largest  population.  It  is  connected  with  the  other  districts 
by  three  tunnels  and   numerous  bridges. 


THE   AlUMToKll.M   BUILDINGS,  CHICAGO 


PLAN 


There  were  no  obstacles  to  laying  out  a  city  on  the  most 
approved  plan,  and  this  has  been  followed  in  the  building 
of  Chicago.  The  long  streets  are  parallel  to  the  Lake  shore  mid 
extend  north  and  south.  Some  of  them,  like  Western  Avenue  and 
Ilalsted  Street,  run  the  entire  length  of  the  city.  The  oilier  streets 
extend  east  and  west.  The  system  of  naming  and  numbering 
unfortunately  is  not  uniform  throughout  the  city.  In  the  older 
part  of  the  town,  both  north  and   south,  and  east  and  west,  streets. 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  225 

are  named,  baton  the  south  and  west  sides,  south  of  Twelfth  Street, 
those  running  east  and  west  are  numbered.  Much  of  the  North 
Side  was  originally  in  separate  towns  before  it  became  identified 
with  the  city,  and  the  old  system  of  street  naming  still  prevails  in 
number  of  localities. 

The  shipping  portion  is  on  the  Lake  front  near  the  river,  and  also 
extends  up  the  river  for  some  over  two  miles.  Besides  the  wharves 
on  both  banks,  numerous  others  are  found  on  canals  that  lead  from 
the  river  to  coal  docks  and  manufacturing  establishments.  Another 
series  of  docks  is  located  at  South  Chicago,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Calumet  River.  The  large  railroad  yards  occupy  several  localities 
within  the  city  limits,  but  are  all  connected  by  a  belt  line,  so  that 
freight  reaching  the  city  on  any  line  can  be  transferred  to  any  other 
without  reloading. 

Chicago  has  several  manufacturing  centers,  some  being  located 
in  each  portion  of  the  city.  Many  factories  are  located  on  or  near 
the  river,  or  some  of  the  canals.  The  great  steel  mills  are  in  South 
Chicago  near  the  Calumet.  The  stock  yards,  with  the  greal  meat- 
packing houses,  are  on  the  South  Side,  extending  along  Halsled 
Street,  from  Thirty-ninth  to  Forty-third  Street-,  and  many  light 
manufactories  are  located  on  the  West  Side. 

The  exchange  portion  is  in  the  northern  end  of  the  South  Side, 
crowded  largely  between  the  River  and  the  Lake  front,  and  extend- 
ing southward  as  far  as  Twelfth  Street.  Within  this  area  are  mosl 
of  the  wholesale  and  retail  establishments,  the  Board  of  Trade  Build- 
ing, the  Federal  Building,  all  of  the  large  bank  and  office  buildings, 
the  Art  Institute,  the  Public  Library,  the  Masonic  Temple,  the 
great  department  stores,  the  Auditorium  and  other  leading  theaters. 
Some  of  these  office  buildings  have  6000  occupants.  Either  in 
this  section,  or  on  the  adjoining  banks  of  the  River,  are  the  greal 
railway  stations,  seven  in  number.  Market  Street  and  Fifth 
Avenue  are  largely  given  to  the  wholesale  trade,  and  South  Water 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  227 

Street  is  occupied  by  the  produce  markets,  while  most  of  the  re- 
tail trade  center-  upon  State  Street  and  Wabash  Avenue.  La  Salle 
Street  corresponds  to  Broad  and  Wall  Streets  in  Xew  York,  as  the 
center  of  the  leading  financial  institutions. 

The  residence  portions  of  the  city  are  found  in  all  three  of 
its  main  divisions,  being  the  largest  on  the  South  and  Wot  Sides. 
There  are  numerous  suburbs  adjoining  each  of  the  main  divisions, 
with    which  they   are   connected   by   railway   and   street    car    lines. 

The  business  section  of  ( Ihicago  is  congested 
TRANSPORTATION  ,  . .  ,  ,  ,.  .  f.       ..  , 

and  the  problem  ot  transporting  the  people 

to  and  from  their  places  of  residence,  is  one  that  has  always  caused 
more  or  less  difficulty.  A  number  of  the  long  streets  extending 
north  and  south  are  occupied  by  street  railways,  and  most  of  the 
important  streets  in  the  west  division  are  similarly  equipped. 
Three  tunnels  connect  these  railways  with  the  business  district. 
In  addition  to  these,  there  are  four  lines  of  elevated  railway  which 
meet  in  a  loop  in  the  exchange  portion,  and  afford  excellent  facili- 
ties for  those  living  on  or  near  their  lines.  They  extend  to  each 
division  of  the  city.  There  are  as  yet  no  subways  for  passengers, 
though  a  system  of  tunnels  for  carrying  freight  is  in  operation. 
During  the  morning  and  evening  hours  all  transportation  lines  are 
badly  crowded. 

The  location  of  Chicago  for  manufacturing 

MANUFACTURES  ,        '    ,         TI      f 

purposes  is  very  favorable.  Iter  transpor- 
tation facilities  are  unequalled,  and  her  proximity  to  the  coal  fields 
of  Illinois  make  fuel  abundant  and  cheap.  For  this  reason,  exten- 
sive steel  works  have  been  located  at  South  Chicago.  The  great 
packing  houses,  which  were  described  in  Chapter  V,  are  located  in 
the  southern  portion  of  the  west  division.  The  great  harvester 
works  of  the  MeCorinick  and  Deering  Harvester  Companies,  now 
consolidated  under  the  name  of  the  International  Harvester  Com- 
pany,  are   also   located    in    the    city.      Large   furniture    factories, 


228  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

piano  factories,  boot  and  shoe  factories,  machine  shops,  soap  fac- 
tories and  numerous  other  industrial  institutions  are  also  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  city.  The  manufacture  of  clothing  is  an  im- 
portant industry,  the  output  amounting  to  nearly  $60,000,000 
a  3'ear.  As  in  New  York,  much  of  this  work  is  done  in  homes 
by  people  who  have  emigrated  from  the  old  countries. 

Chicago  is  the  distributing  center  for  the  vast  territory 
TRADE 

lying  to  the  west  and  northwest.     Her  situation  on 

Lake  Michigan  gives  her  water  communication  with  the  Great 
Lakes  and,  through  the  system  of  canals  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  with 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  central  location  of  the  city  combined 
with  its  facilities  for  Lake  transportation,  have  made  it  the  great- 
est railway  center  in  the  world.  Railroads  whose  aggregate  mile- 
age exceeds  120,000  miles,  or  more  than  two-thirds  of  that  in  the 
entire  United  States,  center  in  Chicago,  and  the  freight  and  passen- 
ger traffic  in  the  city  is  enormous.  The  harbor  is  along  the  Chicago 
and  Calumet  Rivers,  which  have  been  broadened  and  deepened  for 
this  purpose.  The  Chicago  River  has  been  improved  by  extending 
its  mouth  into  the  lake  and  the  lake  front  has,  in  addition  to  this, 
government  breakwaters  nearly  two  miles  in  length.  Ships  can 
pass  up  the  Chicago  River  for  a  long  distance,  and  many  branch 
channels  called  slips,  have  been  excavated  so  as  to  enable  them  to 
reach  coal  docks  and  large  manufacturing  establishments  located  in 
various  parts  of  the  city.  The  work  of  extending  these  channels 
is  still  in  progress. 

The  greatest  export  trade  in  Chicago  consists  of  grain,  flour, 
dressed  meat  and  livestock,  while  her  principal  import  is  lumber, 
the  city  being  one  of  the  largest  lumber  markets  in  the  world. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  lumber  can  be  brought  to  this  point 
on  the  lakes  much  more  cheaply  than  it  can  be  transported  by 
rail,  and  from  here  it  is  distributed  over  the  various  lines  of  railway 
to  the  different  parts  of  the  country.    Chicago  is  the  greatest  wheat 


COMMERCE   AN'D    [NDUSTRY  229 

and  produce  market  in  the  country,  and  lame  quantities  of  grain 
are  received  and  distributed  to  other  centers.  A  characteristic 
feature  of  the  retail  trade  is  the  existence  of  a  number  of  large 
department  stores  which  seem  to  have  reached  perfection  of  de- 
velopment in  this  city,  that  of  Marshall  Field  and  Company  being 
the  largest  retail  store  in  the  world. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  is  the  population  in  certain  parts  of  New  York  so  dense?  [s 
this  true  of  any  other  American  city? 

What  causes  have  made  New  York  such  an  important  manufacturing 
center? 

Why  is  the  commerce  of  New  Voik  greater  than  that  of  Boston? 
Why  does  nol  Philadelphia  have  an  equally  large  trader 

What  are  the  reasons  for  Chicago's  location?  What  causes  have 
contributed  to  the  city's  rapid  growth? 

Why  is  Chicago  a  more  Importanl  railroad  center  than  either  New 
York  or  St.   Louis? 

I  low  docs  the  trade  of  Chicago  differ  in  character  from  that  of  New- 
York?     What  is  the  reasou  for  this  difference? 

What  makes  Chicago  an  importanl  manufacturing  center? 


Chapter  XX. 
EXCHANGE. 

We  have  already  learned  that  men  first   began  to  trade 

MONFY 

by  exchanging  their  products  with  each  other.      While 

the    number   of  products    were  limited  and   the    wants   were   few, 

transactions  of  this  sort  were  possible,  but  with  the  increase  in  the 

number  of  wants  and  also  in  the  number  of  commodities  this  sort 

of  trading  became  impracticable.      The  shoemaker  could  not  well 

go  around  to  the  tailor,  the  farmer  and  the  miller  to  dispose  of  his 

shoes  for  what  each  of  them  produced,  and  it  became  necessary  for 

men  to  have  some  article  which  could  be  used  as  a  uniform  medium 

of  exchange.      Such  an  article  is  known  as  money.     Money   is  not 

an  institution  of  civilization,  for  since  the  remotest  time,  barbarians 

and  partially  civilized  people  have  used  something  as  a  medium  of 

exchange.     The   Indians  used   wampum;   the  tribes  of  the  desert 

regions  in  the  interior  of  Africa  use  salt ;  the  Japanese  and  Chinese 

formerly  used  tea  ;  the  Romans  used  iron  ;  and  the  early  settlers  in 

Virginia  used  tobacco  as  a  currency. 

In  order  that  any  medium  may  be  used  for  money,  it  must    be 

something  thai  everyone  is  willing  to  receive  in  exchange  for  what 

he  has  to  sell.     It  must   have  a   fixed  value  ;   it    needs  t<>  comprise 

the    value    within    a   comparatively   small    space,    and   it   must    be 

capable  of  receiving  and  retaining  stamps  which  show  its  valuation. 

Of  all  the  mediums  that  have  been  used  for  money,  gold  and  silver 

meet  these  requirements  more  nearly  than  all  other  materials  com- 

bined.      Paper  money  is  used  by  the  United  States <ind  many  other 

nations,  but   it    is  of  value  only   so   far  as   it    represents  gold  and 

silver,  for  which  it  may  be  exchanged  at  par  on  the  desire  of  the 

231 


232 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


holder.  The  paper  money  of  the  United  States  and  of  Great 
Britain  is  exchangeable  at  par  in  all  civilized  countries.  This  is 
because  it  represents  gold. 

The  money  of  the  United  States  consists  of  gold  and  silver 
coins,  nickel  and  copper  coins,  United  States  treasury  notes,  gold 
certificates  and  silver  certificates,  both  of  which  are  issued  by  the 


A   UNITED   STATES   MINT 


general  Government,  and  of  the  notes  issued  by  the  national  banks. 
All  of  these  issues  of  paper  money  are  protected  by  specie  or 
bonds,  in  the  possession  of  the  treasurer  of  the  United  States. 
For  this  reason  they  never  fluctuate  in  value  and  are  in  more 
general  use  than  the  gold  and  silver  which  they  represent,  because 
they  are  more  convenient  to  handle  and  carry. 

A    bank    is    an    institution    for    receiving    money    and 
granting  loans.     If  it  is  a  national  bank,  it  also  has  the 


BANKS 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  233 

authority  to  issue  paper  money  to  the  value  of  a  certain  amount  of 
its  stock.     Banks  aid  business  in  the  following  ways  : 

First.  They  serve  as  safe  places  in  which  to  depos'il  money. 
This  is  necessary,  as  hut  few  business  men  have  places  where  they 
can  keep  on  hand  a  sufficient  amount  of  money  to  transact  their 
business  without  incurring  great  risk  of  loss  through  robbery 
or  tire. 

Second.  They  cause  more  money  to  be  used  than  would 
otherwise  he  possible.  Many  people  who  deposit  money  in  the 
hank  do  not  have  a  sufficient  amount  over  and  above  their  needs 
to  admit  of  loaning  it,  hut  when  many  small  amounts  are  gathered 
through  these  deposits,  the  hank  can  loan  them  in  large  sums.  In 
this  way  the  bank  makes  useful  money  that  without  such  an  oppor- 
tunity would  lie  idle. 

Thh-d .  Banks  enable  many  payments  to  he  made  without  the 
direct  use  of  money.  If  A  buys  of  B  merchandise  to  the  amount 
of  $100,  and  both  A  and  t>  deposit  their  money  in  the  same  bank, 
A,  by  writing  an  order  on  the  hank  to  pay  B  slot),  causes  that 
amount  to  be  charged  to  his  account  and  credited  to  B  on  the 
books  of  the  bank.  The  debt  is  paid,  and  no  money  has  been 
handled.  This  may  he  equally  true  if  A  lives  in  Chicago  and  15 
in  New  York.  That  is,  A  may  obtain  from  his  bank  in  Chicago 
an  order  on  some  bank  in  New  York  to  pay  B  the  desired  amount. 
B  deposits  this  order  in  the  bank  where  he  does  business,  and  the 
amount  is  placed  to  his  credit.  Again  no  money  has  been  handled, 
but  the  debt  is  paid.  If  signed  by  the  depositor,  the  order  i» 
called  a  check;  when  made  by  one  hank  on  another  and  signed  by 
the  cashier  or  other  officer,  it  is  called  a  draft.  Drafts  are  gener- 
ally used  in  making  remittances  to  people  at  a  distance. 

„..„ Banks    receive  on   deposit    the   checks, 

THE  CLEARING  HOUSE      ,     .,  .  ,,'.,,. 

drafts  and  money  offered  by  their  de- 
positors.    These  may  he  on  the  bank  in  which  the  deposit  is  made, 


234  COMMERCE  AND   INDUSTRY 

or  on  a  number  of  other  banks,  either  in  the  depositor's  city  or  in 
other  cities.  The  depositor  is  given  credit  for  the  amount  which 
his  various  checks  and  drafts  represent,  and  the  bank  makes 
settlement  with  the  other  banks  on  which  these  papers  are  drawn. 
In  small  towns,  banks  exchange  checks  with  each  other  and 
balance  their  accounts  at  frequent  intervals,  if  not  daily  ;  but  in 
large  cities,  where  there  are  numerous  banks,  such  a  method  of 
procedure  would  require  a  great  deal  of  time  and  labor.  To  avoid 
this,  a  clearing  house  is  established. 

The  clearing  house  is  an  association  of  banks  which  combine, 
under  regulations  that  they  agree  upon,  for  the  purpose  of 
exchanging  checks  and  balancing  their  accounts  with  each  other 
daily.  The  clearing  house  is  in  charge  of  a  manager.  Each 
bank  represented  has  a  desk  at  which  a  clerk  is  stationed.  At  a 
certain  hour  in  the  day  —  as  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning — a  clerk 
from  each  bank  appears  at  the  clearing  house  with  checks  which 
that  bank  has  received  upon  the  other  banks  in  the  association. 
These  are  in  separate  packages  so  that  the  amount  which  each 
bank  owed  to  the  others  is  quickly  ascertained  by  the  manager. 
After  these  packages  have  been  examined,  they  are  distributed  to 
the  different  clerks.  Then  the  clerks  from  the  various  banks  pass 
from  desk  to  desk  and  exchange  checks.  If  a  balance  is  due,  the 
amount  is  noted,  and  it  is  made  payable  through  the  clearing  house. 
In  this  way  all  the  accounts  are  checked  and  balanced  in  a  few 
minutes,  and  a  great  amount  of  labor  and  inconvenience  is  saved. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  banks  in  the  association  have  uniform 
regulations  in  regard  to  accepting  and  paying  checks.  These 
regulations  are  to  them  a  protection  against  fraudulent  trans- 
actions. There  are  now  some  sixty-four  clearing  houses  in  the 
United  States.  The  largest  is  located  in  New  York,  and  its  trans- 
actions are  several  times  the  amount  of  those  in  any  other  city ; 
the  next  largest  is  in  Chicago. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  235 

The    question    may    arise:      How    can    hanks 

Bank  Earnings       #»    i  .  i        ,     i     ,     <■ 

°        auord  to  receive  money  and  cash  checks  tor 

their  depositors?     The  banks  receive  their  revenue  from  the  loans 

which  they  make.     A  much   larger  amount  of  money   is  usually 

deposited  than  is  required  to  meet  the  transaction-  as  they  occur, 

from  day  to   day.     The   law  providing  for  the   establishment  of 

banks  requires  that,  in  addition  to  the  amount  needed  for  daily 

use,  a  certain  proportion  of  the  deposits  be  kept  as  a  reserve  fund. 

All  funds   over    these    amounts  the   bank  is   allowed   to   loan  on 

proper  security.     The  interest  which  it  derives  from  these   loans, 

constitutes  the  revenue  it  receives  for  transacting  the  depositors' 

business,  and  the  pay  is  usually  ample. 

Many  lines  of  business  require  such    a    large 

CORPORATIONS     amount  of  capjtai  that  people  are  seldom  found 

with  sufficient  means  to  carry  them  on  singly.  The  construction 
and  operation  of  great  lines  of  railway,  the  building  of  ships  and 
the  erection  of  iron-mills  and  large  factories  are  good  illustrations 
of  such  lines  of  business.  In  order  to  secure  the  necessary  capital, 
corporations  are  usually  formed.  A  corporation  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  individuals  who  associate  themselves  together  for  a  definite 
business  purpose,  and  obtain  from  some* state  a  charter,  which  is  a 
contract  binding  them  to  certain  agreements  and  restricting  them 
to  the  lines  of  business  stated  in  its  terms.  When  such  a  corpora- 
tion is  organized  it  can  obtain  money  by  selling  shares  in  the  busi- 
ness. These  are  known  as  stocks,  and  are  usually  sold  in  shares 
of  one  hundred  dollars  or  fifty  dollars.  When  sold  at  the  rate  of 
dollar  for  dollar,  stocks  are  at  par;  if  sold  for  less  than  their  f.icv. 
they  are  at  discount;  if  for  more,  at  a  premium. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  stock,  both  of  which  are  often  issued 
by  corporations.  They  are  known  as  common  and  preferred  stock. 
The  preferred  stock  is  that  upon  which  a  certain  rate  of  interesl  i- 
guaranteed  regardless  of  the  earnings  of  the  corporation,  and  the 


236 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


common  stock  is  not  subject  to  interest,  but  its  holders  receive 
their  share  of  any  dividends  that  the  corporation  may  earn.  The 
isssuing  of  stock  is  a  strictly  proper  and  legal  business,  so  long  as 
the  amount  issued  does  not  exceed  the  actual  amount  paid  in ;  but 
the  great  danger  in  these  corporations  is  that  they  will  issue  many 


UNITED  STATES  SUB-TREASURY,  NEW  YORK 

more  shares  of  stock  than  the  capital  of  the  corporation  warrants. 

All  stock  over   the    amount  represented   by  the  actual  capital  is 

called    "watered  stock,"  and  its  issuance  often  leads  to  financial 

embarrassment. 

Corporations    in    need    of  mouey    for  establishing   a 
business  or  for  its  enlargement,  often   secure    it  by 


BONDS 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

issuing  bonds  instead  of  selling  their  -lock.  Bonds  are  usually 
considered  the  safer  investment  for  the  parly  making  the  loan,  as 
they  are  a  mortgage  on  the  property,  and  if  the  principal  and 
interest  are  not  paid,  the  hold<  r  of  the  bonds  has  the  right  to  pro- 
ceed against  the  company.  Most  of  the  loans  made  by  railroad 
corporations  are  secured  in  this  way,  and  large  manufacturing  con- 
cerns often  secure  their  creditors  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  corporation  is  usually  managed  by  a  few  people  who  are 
elected  as  officers.  These  consist  of  a  president,  secretary  and 
treasurer,  and  there  may  be  several  vice-presidents.  The  ordinary 
stockholders  seldom  have  any  voice  in  the  management  of  the  con- 
cern, and  must  run  the  risk  of  obtaining  a  dividend  on  their  invest- 
ment, or  of  being  able  to  dispose  of  their  stock  at  as  favorable  a 
price  as  they  obtained  it,  should  they  desire  to  transfer  their  invest- 
ment to  some  other  enterprise. 

Many  stocks  and  bonds    are  valuable 

THE  STOCK  EXCHANGE  ...  ,  ,  .  .     ,,  , 

securities,  and  are  sought  by  those  who 

have  money  to  invest.  For  this  reason,  there  are  those  in  all  large 
cities  who  make  a  business  of  buying  and  selling  these  securities 
on  commission.  Such  men  are  known  as  stock  brokers.  In  most 
of  these  cities  there  is  some  place  where  at  a  certain  hour  of  the 
day,  stocks  and  bonds  are  publicly  offered  for  sale.  In  the  United 
States  such  places  are  known  as  the  Stock  Exchange.  The  leading 
stock  exchange  of  the  United  States  is  in  New  York.  It  fixes  the 
market  price  of  securities  for  the  entire  United  States,  and  trans- 
acts more  business  than  all  of  the  other  stock  exchanges  of  the 
country  combined.  It  is  located  on  Wall  Street  and  has  attained 
a  world  wide  reputation. 

Wheat,  corn  and  other  grains,  are  bought 

BOARDS  OF  TRADE  ,         ,.  ?  .,     \     .,    ,  s 

and  sold  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  em- 
ployed in  the  buying  and  selling  of  stocks.  In  cities  having  large 
Iran-actions  in  produce,  boards  of  trade  are  organized.       Members 


238  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

buy  and  sell  these  commodities  on  commission,  and  for  their  own 
profit.  Much  of  this  buying  and  selling  in  Chicago  and  a  feu- 
other  large  cities,  is  at.  public  sale.  The  largest  board  of  trade  is 
in  Chicago  and  it  has  a  similar  influence  on  the  prices  of  produce 
that  the  Stock  Exchange  of  New  York  has  upon  the  prices  ol 
stocks  and  bonds.  Its  transactions  amount  to  many  millions  ol 
dollars  a  year. 

In  boards  of  trade  and  stock  exchanges  there  are  always  two 
parties  ;  those  who  wish  to  sell,  and  those  who  wish  to  buy.  The 
first  party  naturally  endeavors  to  keep  the  prices  as  high  as  possi- 
ble, and  to  use  every  opportunity  to  raise  them.  For  this  reason 
they  are  known  as  the  "bulls."  While  those  who  wish  to  buy,  as 
naturally  endeavor  to  keep  the  prices  as  low  as  possible  and  to  seek 
every  opportunity  to  bring  them  lower.  These  are  called  the 
"bears."  Both  of  these  terms  are  in  common  use  in  connection 
with  the  public  sale  of  commodities.  To  "bear"  stock  or  grain, 
means  to  attempt  to  reduce  the  price;  while  to  "bull"  stock  or 
grain  means  to  attempt  to  raise  the  price.  However  strange  these 
terms  may  seem  to  one  unacquainted  Avith  them,  a  brief  explana- 
tion shows  that  they  are  very  appropriate.  The  bull  tosses  things 
with  his  horns,  while  the  bear  pulls  them  down  with  his  claws. 

To  the  observer  who  is  unacquainted  with  the  method  of  these 
organizations,  the  scene  in  the  Stock  Exchange  or  Board  of  Trade 
when  business  is  at  its  height,  is  one  of  the  wildest  confusion.  It 
would  seem  that  all  the  men  present  are  shouting  at  the  same  time, 
and  each  one  in  a  different  language.  Yet  there  is  order  and  system 
in  it  all,  and  those  who  transact  the  business  understand  each 
other  thoroughly,  so  that  mistakes  seldom  occur.  Transactions 
extending  into  millions  of  dollars  are  made  in  the  shortest  possible 
time,  and  no  one  who  is  a  member  of  the  organization  can  retract 
from  an  offer  that  he  has  made  or  accepted.  Unfortunately  some 
of  the  transactions   partake   of  a  fraudulent   nature,  as  they  are 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  239 

based  upon  what  are  known  as  "futures,"  which  simply  means  that 

the  buyer  and  seller  are  both  engaged  in  transferring  commodities 

which  do  not  exist.     However,  transactions  of  this  nature   forma 

very  small  part  of  the  business  done. 

Means  of  transmitting    money    safely 
MAKING  REMITTANCES    ^   neces3a,.y   to   „„;    tnil|sa;. ,    /, 

business    between    parties    living  at  a    distance.      When    one    has 

access  to  a  bank  money  can  be  safely  transmitted  by  means  <>f  a 
bank  draft.  The  draft  is  made  payable  to  the  person  to  whom  the 
debt  is  due,  and  can  not  be  collected  until  endorsed  by  that  per- 
son or  firm.  Therefore  it  is  of  no  value  to  one  finding  or  stealing 
it.  Its  loss  would  cause  inconvenience,  but  not  actual  loss  to  the 
sender. 

For  those  who  are  so  situated  that  they  do  not  have  ready 
access  to  banks,  the  United  States  mails  afford  safe  means  of  send- 
ing money.  These  are  by  registered  letter  and  by  postal  order. 
In  sending  by  registered  letter,  the  money  is  placed  in  the  letter 
and  the  registering  fee  is  paid  by  placing  the  necessary  stamp  on 
the  letter  in  addition  to  the  regular  postage.  For  this  fee  the 
government  keeps  a  record  of  the  letter  every  time  it  changes 
hands  on  its  journey  ;  also  prepares  a  receipt  addressed  to  the 
sender,  and  which  must  be  signed  by  the  person  to  whom  the 
letter  is  addressed  when  it  is  delivered.  This  receipt  is  then 
returned  to  the  sender  who  is  thus  notified  of  the  receipt  of  the 
money  by  the  proper  party.  In  registering  a  letter  the  govern- 
ment agrees  to  keep  a  record  of  its  transmission  through  the  mails 
and  to  insure  its  delivery  to  the  party  to  whom  it  is  addressed. 
But  the  government  does  not  guarantee  the  sender  against  loss  by 
theft  or  the  destruction  of  the  letter  by  accident,  hence  the  regis- 
tered letter  is  not  the  safest  method  of  transmitting  money. 

In  sending  money  by  postal  order,  the  order  is  purchased  at  the 
home    office  the   same  as   a   bank  draft.      It    is   issued  in  duplicate 


240  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

and  made  payable  to  the  party  to  whom  the  debt  is  due.  One 
copy  is  placed  in  the  letter  addressed  to  the  person  who  is  to 
receive  the  money,  and  the  other  is  sent  by  the  postmaster  to  the 
postmaster  in  the  town  where  the  money  is  to  be  paid.  When  the 
holder  presents  his  order  at  the  post-otfice  and  properly  indorses 
it,  he  receives  his  money.  By  this  means  only  the  order  is  sent 
through  the  mails,  and  the  risk  of  loss  is  very  slight.  Express 
companies  also  issue  similar  orders  that  are  equally  safe. 

One  should  never  send  money  through  the  mails  in  an 
unregistered  letter,  since  in  so  doing  one  runs  great  risk  of  losing 
the  remittance. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  did  the  Aztecs  and  Incas  not  use  gold  and  silver  for  money, 
since  they  had  an  abundance  of  these  metals  ? 

Why  are  gold  and  silver  the  most  suitable  metals  for  money  among 
civilized  nations? 

How  does  a  bank  aid  the  industries  of  a  locality  ? 

AVhat  is  a  clearing  house?  Of  what  advantage  are  clearing  houses 
in  large  cities? 

Are  there  are  any  corporations  in  your  locality?  In  what  business 
are  they  engaged? 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  Board  of  Trade  and  a  Stock  Ex- 
change ? 


Chapter  XXI. 
TRADE   BETWEEN   THE    STATES. 

Trade  with  other  countries  is  styled  foreign  commerce,  and 
that  within  a  country,  domestic  commerce.  We  have  already  seen 
that  commerce  depends  upon  the  adaptation  of  each  locality  to 
some  special  line  of  industry,  and  upon  the  taste  of  individuals  in 
choosing  an  occupation.  When  to  this  we  add  good  facilities  for 
transportation  and  a  sound  money  system  upon  which  to  base 
credit,  the  conditions  for  a  large  commerce  are  nearly  perfect.  In 
the  United  States  Ave  find  these  conditions  more1  fully  met  than  in 
any  other  country. 

Our  great   extent  of  territory  embraces 

LOCAL   INDUSTRIES  ,  .  ,  "      .      ,    , ... 

many  regions,  which,  on  account  or  dif- 
ference in  soil,  climate  and  natural  resources,  arc  as  distinctly 
separated,  industrially,  as  though  they  were  under  different 
governments.  Furthermore,  such  regions  as  the  cotton  belt,  the 
corn  belt  and  the  bituminous  coal  fields  are  each  larger  than  the 
country  occupied  by  any  of  such  great  powers  as  France,  Germany 
or  Italy.  All  of  these  regions  sustain  a  thriving  population, 
whose  wants  are  supplied  by  exchanging  their  products  for  those 
of  other  regions. 

In  no  other  country  do  the  inhabitants  include 

INDIVIDUALITY  .  .  .       ,  J       ,         .,,,  ,   .. 

such  a  variety  or  people.      I  he  population  ot 

the  United  States  comprises  representatives  of  all  civilized  nations, 
and  these,  with  the  native  Americans,  have  developed  into  a 
people  whose  variety  of  tastes,  range  of  occupations  and  indepen- 
dence in  thought  and  deed  have  never  been  equalled.  These 
conditions  have  led  to  a  variety  of  occupations  and  created  a 
multiplicity  of  wants. 

241 


242  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

In  railways,  steamships,  lakes,  rivers  and 
TRANSPORTATION  V       .    ,    ,  A  , 

sea,    we    do    not   lack,    and    nearly    every 

AND    CREDIT  • 

inhabitant  is  on  or  near  one  of  these  means 

of  communication,  though  some  are  greatly  embarrassed  in  trans- 
porting their  produce,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  good  roads.  Of 
money  we  have  an  ample  supply,  our  system  of  credit  is  sound, 
and  all  these  conditions  have  combined  to  build  up  a  domestic 
commerce  such  as  no  other  country  maintains. 

The  movement  of  a  commodity  depends  upon 

MOVEMENT  OF        ,         v  .  ,       ,      .         •*  •         A  a       a 

where  it  is  produced,  where  it  is  needed,  and 

COMMODITIES  tfae  distribution  of  population.  The  older 
states  are  the  most  densely  populated,  and  although  the  center  of 
population  has  been  moving  westward  for  more  than  one  hundred 
years,  in  1900  it  was  only  a  short  distance  west  of  Columbus, 
Indiana.  The  population  of  the  agricultural  regions  is  less  dense 
than  that  of  manufacturing  regions,  and  that  of  the  mining  regions 
is  generally  less  than  that  of  the  agricultural  regions.  This  dis- 
tribution of  population  is  an  important  factor  in  our  commercial 
life. 

The    northern   half  of  the   Mississippi   Valley   and   the 

brain  pacific  gl0pe  are  the  great  granaries  of  the  country. 
From  the  first  region  the  movement  of  wheat  and  corn  is  eastward 
to  the  great  centers  of  trade  and  manufacture,  Chicago,  Buffalo, 
Cleveland,  New  York,  Boston  and  other  eastern  cities  receiving 
large  supplies,  either  for  local  consumption  or  for  trans-shipment. 
The  grain  of  the  Pacific  States  has  a  northern  or  southern  move- 
ment, or  is  exported  and  goes  westward  to  the  Orient. 

Considerable    of  the   cotton    raised   in  the    Southern 

Cotton       grates  is  now  manufactured  in  the  states  where  it  is 

grown.     However,  this  constitutes  only  a  small  part  of  the  crop. 

Most  of  the  product  is  sent  northward,  either  for  use  in  the  mills 

of  New  England  or  for  trans-shipment  to  Europe. 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY  243 

Livestock  follows  the  same  lines  as  grain.  It  is 
raised  or  fattened  in  the  uriniii  producing  Btates, 
whence  it  finds  its  way  to  the  densely  populated  states  and  cities, 
to  supply  them  with  meat.  Some  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  States 
goes  westward  to  supply  local  demands  in  California,  Oregon  and 
Washington,  hut  a  good  proportion  is  slaughtered  and  prepared 
for  export  in  the  greal  packing  houses  in  Chicago,  Omaha  and 
Kansas  ( !ity. 

The    manufacturing    centers    send    their    wares 

Manufactures     ,      ,,        •        ,•      '     ,  •  ,   .,  •  , 

to  all  regions  from  which  they  receive  produce, 

or  raw  material.  New  England,  the  North  Atlantic  States,  and 
those  between  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  Mississippi  River  com- 
prise the  great  manufacturing  region  of  the  country.  There  are 
large  manufacturing  establishments  in  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  St. 
Louis  and  some  other  cities.  West  of  the  Mississippi  River 
manufacturing  is  not  as  general  as  farther  east.  Consequently  all 
the  vast  area  between  this  river  and  the  Pacific  coast  must  he 
partially  supplied  by  the  manufactures  from  the  eastern  half  of  the 
country.  And  what  is  true  of  the  West  is  equally  true  of  the 
South. 

Manufactures,  then,  in  general,  move  west  and  south,  and  in 
addition  to  these  general  movements,  there  are  those  of  a  purely 
local  character  which  increase  the  exchange  of  commodities  between 
neighboring  cities  having  different  industries.  This  branch  of  trade 
is  also  increased  by  individual  taste,  as  some  people  prefer  goods 
from  one  city  and  some  from  another,  and  in  order  that  the  wants 
of  all  may  be  supplied,  quite  a  complex  exchange  of  commodities 
i-^  neeesaary. 

Coal  and  petroleum  are  in  constant  demand,  and 

Mineral  Fuels    .,    •  .   •    ,       ,,        .       ,.  4, 

their  movement    is   to  all   parts  ol   the    country, 

though  each  section,  as  far  as  possible,  is  supplied  with  coal  from  its 

nearest  sources,  as  the  expense  of  freight  on  this  commodity  is  great. 


244  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

The  movement  of  ore  is  always  to  the  place  where  it  will 
be  milled  or  smelted.  Iron  ore  seeks  the  coal  regions 
because  it  requires  a  large  amount  of  fuel.  Copper  ore  is  reduced 
at  or  near  the  mines  because  the  transportation  of  the  ore  is  more 
expensive  than  the  cost  of  the  fuel  required  to  smelt  it.  The  ores 
of  gold,  silver  and  lead,  which  are  usually  reduced  by  combined 
mechanical  and  chemical  action,  are  milled  at  or  near  the  mines, 
and  the  metal  is  shipped  to  the  points  where  it  is  desired.  In 
general,  the  movement  of  these  metals  is  eastward. 

Iron  and  steel  are  used  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
Iron  and  Steel      try?  and  are  shipped  from  the  nearest  steel 

mills  to  the  desired  localities.  The  Illinois  mills  supply  most 
of  the  demand  of  the  West  and  Northwest,  but  those  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  Ohio  supply  the  East  and  South  and  the  foreign 
trade. 

Besides  the  movements  described,  there 

COASTWISE  TRADE       .  ,  ,    .  ,  ,    .-.    ., 

is  one  ot  great  importance  on   both  the 

Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  coast.  This  is  the  interchange  of  commod- 
ities between  seaports  of  these  respective  localities.  On  the  At^ 
lantic  and  Gulf  coasts  this  trade  employs  numerous  lines  of  steam- 
ships plying  on  Long  Island  Sound  and  between  Boston  and  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Charleston,  Savannah,  Jacksonville, 
New  Orleans,  Galveston  and  a  number  of  other  less  important  sea- 
ports. On  the  Pacific  similar  lines  ply  between  San  Francisco, 
Seattle,  Portland  and  Tacoma  and  Vancouver,  British  Columbia, 
and  also  between  San  Francisco  and  the  ports  to  the  south,  prin- 
cipally San  Diego  and  the  port  for  Los  Angeles. 

The  United  States  has  the  largest  coastwide  trade  in  the  world. 
Its  combined  tonnage  exceeds  3,120,000  tons,  four-fifths  of  which 
belong  to  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.  This  trade  is  by  law 
reserved  to  vessels  under  the  American  flag,  and  the  only  compe- 
tition that  is  offered  these  lines  is  that  given  by  the  railways.    The 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY  245 

river,  lake  and  railway  traffic  has  already   been  described  in  the 
chapter  on  trade  routes. 

Complete  statistics  of  domestic  commerce  are  not  obtainable, 
as  no  record  is  required  of  goods  not  exported  or  imported,  and  its 
extent  can  only  be  estimated  by  the  labor  and  capital  required  to 
carry  it  on.  In  addition  to  the  ocean  going  vessels  engaged  in 
coastwise  traffic,  more  than  4000  vessels  are  employed  on  the 
20,000  miles  of  inland  water,  lakes  and  rivers.  The  railway  trans- 
portation requires  220,000  miles  of  railroad  lines,  which  is  about 
one-half  of  the  mileage  of  the  world,  thus  involving  a  capital  of 
thirteen  billions  of  dollars,  a  sum  four  times  greater  than  the 
amount  of  circulating  money  in  the  United  States.  These  railway 
systems  earn  yearly  the  enormous  sum  of  $1,600,000,000  which  is 
more  than  three  times  the  annual  revenue  of  the  national  govern- 
ment.  In  extent,  value  and  variety,  the  domestic  commerce  of 
the  United  States  exceeds  that  of  any  other  country. 

GROWTH  OF  CITIES    ™S  r!mark*'«  development  of  our  com- 

merce  is  associated  with  other  great  move- 
ments which  are  constantly  affecting  our  industrial  and  social  life. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  gathering  of  the  people 
into  cities.  Large  cities  are,  year  by  year,  adding  to  their  num- 
ber of  inhabitants,  and  small  cities  are  becoming  more  numerous. 
In  1790  only  3.35  per  cent  of  the  population  dwelt  in  cities  of 
6000  or  more  inhabitants;  in  1<S40  the  proportion  was  8.52  per 
cent;  in  1890  it  was  29.20  per  cent,  and  in  1900  it  was  33.35 
per  cent,  or  a  little  more  than  one-third  of  the  entire  population 
of  the  country. 

iMiwipn*-mA»    The  next  important  movement  i>  that   of  immi- 

IMMlbKAlIUN  t.  _,.  .     .  .    _ 

gration.  the  constant  influx  ot  foreigners  is 
so  great  that  it  is  affecting  our  social  and  political  institutions, 
as  well  as  increasing  our  opportunities  for  commerce  and  industry. 
The  more  we  study  our  inland  trade  the  more  thoroughly  are  we 


246  COMMERCE  AND  INDUSTRY 

led  to  understand  that  the  domestic  commerce  of  the  country  is 
intimately  related  to  every  phase  of  our  national  life. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  has  the  United  States  so  large  a  domestic  commerce  ? 

Why  is  such  a  large  proportion  of  the  produce  of  the  agricultural 
regions  taken  to  the  cities  ?  What  do  the  cities  send  to  the  country  in 
return  ? 

What  products  are  shipped  in  all  directions  from  their  sources  of 
supply? 

Why  do  the  manufactures  of  the  Eastern  States  find  a  market  in  the 
West  and  the  South? 


Chapter  XXII. 
ALASKA   AND    OUR    ISLAND   POSSESSIONS. 

Alaska  has  ail  area  of  600,000  square  miles,  nearly  all 
ALASKA  •  .  .  . 

of  which  is  on  or  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  but  owing 

to  the  warm  current  in  the  Pacific,  those  portions  near  the  coast 
have  a  much  milder  climate  than  the  latitude  of  the  country  would 
lead  us  to  anticipate.  The  interior  is  broken  and,  in  many  places, 
mountainous.  Streams  traverse  the  valleys  and,  south  of  the 
Yukon,  the  hillsides  and  most  of  the  lowlands  are  covered  with  a 
heavy  growth  of  forests.  Though  the  trees  are  not  so  large  as 
those  found  in  the  forests  of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  or  Oregon 
and  Washington,  yet  a  large  proportion  are  suitable  for  merchan- 
table lumber,  and  in  due  time  will  undoubtedly  constitute  an 
important  source  of  revenue  for  this  locality. 

The  hardier  grains  and  garden  vegetables  are  grown  without 
difficult v,  as  far  north  as  the  Yukon.  The  islands  extending 
beyond  the  Alaskan  Peninsula  are  favorable  for  stock-raising,  and 
already  large  ranches  have  been  established  on  a  number  of  them. 
Up  to  the  present  time,  the  most  important  industries  of  the  terri- 
tory are  gold  mining  and  the  canning  of  salmon.  The  important 
mines  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States  are  at  Juneau  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  Nome  City,  on  Seward  Peninsula.  Gold  was 
discovered  at  this  point  in  1898,  and  since  then  hundreds  of  claims 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  have  been  taken  up  and  worked.  The 
output  of  gold  has  averaged  over  $8,000,000  per  year  since  the 
discovery  of  these  mines,  and  Nome  City  has  become  a  town  of 
over  25,000  inhabitants,  having  all  the  modern  conveniences  of 
similar  towns  in  the  heart  of  the  country. 

Alaska  abounds  in  untold  mineral  wealth,  which  has  not  yet 

247 


248  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

been  developed.  Iron,  copper  and  coal  have  been  found  in  large 
quantities  and  only  wait  for  cheap  rates  of  transportation  and  men 
to  work  the  mines.  In  1904  large  marble  quarries  were  opened 
near  Prince  of  "Wales  Island  and  are  furnishing  the  finest  marbles 
ever  quarried  in  North  America. 

The  salmon  canning  is  on  and  about  Kadiak  Island,  and  in  the 
value  of  its  output  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  gold  mines.  No 
largo  towns  have  yet  been  established  in  this  part  of  the  territory, 
but  Juneau,  farther  south  on  the  coast,  is  the  center  of  important 
mining  industries,  and  now  has  a  population  of  about  3,000. 

Eegular  lines  of  steamers  ply  between  all  Alaskan  ports  and 
Seattle  and  other  cities  on  Puget  Sound  during  the  months  when  navi- 
gation is  open,  and  the  United  States  has  established  a  regular  mail 
service,  so  that,  except  during  the  most  severe  winter  months,  all 
citizens  receive  mail  at  regular  intervals.  Telegraphic  communica- 
tion by  way  of  Dawson  is  now  open  to  nearly  all  points  in  the 
territory.  The  population  is  about  60,000,  and  the  government  is 
that  of  an  unorganized  territory,  the  governor  and  judges  of  the 
court  being  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  territorial  officers  appointing  the  minor  local  officials.  The 
United  States  mining  and  land  laws  have  been  extended  to  the 
territory,  and  there  is  every  prospect  of  a  rapid  increase  in  settle- 
ment, and  in  the  development  of  its  industries. 

This  island,  one  of  the  most  important   of  the 
PORTO  RTCO 
"     "         u       West  India  group,  was  acquired  from  Spain  in 

1898.     It  is  a  little  smaller  than  Connecticut,  having  an  area  of 

3600  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about  900,000.     It  is  more 

densely  populated  than  any  state  except  Massachusetts  and  Rhode 

Island.     About  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  are  negroes  and  mu- 

lattoes.     The   better  class    are  Spanish  Creoles,  who  live    in    the 

towns  and  control  the  industries  and  business  affairs  of  the  island. 

About  three  quarters  of  the  population  is  rural. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  249 

Near  the  coast  the  land  is  low,  but  it  rises  as  we  go  into  the 
interior,  where  it  becomes  hilly  and,  in  places,  even  mountainous. 
The  island  is  within  the  belt  of  the  trade  winds,  and  the  northern 
part  is  abundantly  watered,  consequently  the  rivers  in  this  pari  of 
the  island  afford  acceptable  harbors,  and  render  important  assist- 
ance to  commerce. 

Most  of  the  island  is  divided  into  small  farms,  all  of  which  are 
tilled  by  their  owners.  On  the  low  slopes  and  the  plains  fruit 
farming  is  the  leading  industry  ;  hut  coffee,  tobacco,  corn  and 
mountain  rice  are  grown,  and  coffee  has  become  an  important 
article  of  export.  In  the  interior  cattle  are  raised  on  the  hill 
farms,  and  the  largest  tobacco  plantations  are  found  on  the  narrow 
alluvial  plains.  The  two  cities  of  greatest  importance  are  Ponce, 
having  a  population  of  28,000,  and  San  Juan,  with  a  population  of 
32,000.  San  Juan  is  1411  miles  from  New  York,  with  which  it 
maintains  regular  communication  by  steamer.  Coastwise  steamers 
also  ply  between  the  different  ports  of  the  island. 

Labor  is  cheap,  and  the  establishment  of  manufacturing  indus- 
tries would  be  a  great  benefit  to  the  people,  as  it  would  enable 
them  to  obtain  better  support  than  is  possible  under  present  con- 
ditions. Many  of  the  native  plants  are  suitable  for  textiles  and 
cordage,  and  these  could  be  manufactured  with  profit.  The  annual 
trade  with  the  United  States  amounts  to  about  $20,000,000. 
Eight  millions  of  this  being  exports,  which  consist,  in  the  order  of 
their  importance,  of  coffee,  tobacco,  honey,  cocoanut  and  molasses. 
The  imports  are  cotton  goods,  rice  and  codfish.  The  fish  comes 
mostly  from  Canada,  and  the  trade  with  other  countries  amounts 
to  about  $2,000,000  per  year.  The  roads  on  the  island  are  poor 
and  the  railroads  few,  but  the  United  States  Government  has 
commenced  the  construction  of  roads  between  the  mosl  important 
trading  centers,  and  American  capital  will  undoubtedly  extend  the 
present,  railway  lines. 


250  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

The  government  consists  of  an  executive  council  composed  of 
a  cabinet,  the  members  of  which  are  Americans  appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States  ;  and  five  Porto  Ricans.  There  is 
also  a  lower  house,  of  thirty-five  members,  who  are  citizens  of  the 
island,  and  are  chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  governor  is  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  and  is  appointed  by  the  President.  AVhile 
the  Porto  Ricans  are  given  a  franchise  and  local  and  city  govern- 
ment, they  are  not  recognized  as  citizens  of  the  United  States. 
An  excellent  system  of  schools  on  the  American  plan  is  now  in 
operation,  and  the  number  of  pupils  in  attendance  is  increasing 
more  rapidly  than  the  school  facilities  will  accommodate.  Under 
American  rule  all  conditions  on  the  island  are  improving. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  lie  at  the  crossroads  of  all  great 
steamship  lines  of  the  Pacific.  They  are  eight  in 
number  and  are  situated  between  155°  and  160°  west  longitude  ; 
have  an  area  of  6740  square  miles,  a  little  more  than  three-fourths 
that  of  Massachusetts,  and  a  population  somewhat  less  than  200,000. 
The  climate  is  salubrious  and  equable,  owing  to  the  influence  of 
the  trade  winds.  The  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  the  soil, 
which  has  been  formed  by  the  disintegration  of  lava,  is  very 
fertile.  It  has  accumulated  in  the  valleys  to  a  great  thickness,  and 
here  most  of  the  sugar-cane,  which  is  the  important  crop  of  the 
islands,  is  grown.  This  industry  employs  nearly  all  of  the  capital 
and  labor.  The  cane  is  cultivated  on  large  estates  which  are 
owned  by  stock  companies,  but  nearly  all  of  the  citizens  of  the 
island  own  stock  in  the  corporation,  so  that  their  prosperity 
depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  sugar  industry.  Rice  is  the 
next  most  important  crop,  and  is  grown  in  swamps  by  Chinese, 
who  are  not  aifected  by  the  malarial  climate  of  these  localities. 
Some  coffee,  pineapples,  bananas  and  vegetables  are  also  grown, 
though  only  to  supply  local  needs. 

The  forests  contain  many  useful  trees,  but  have  been  nearly 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  251 

destroyed  to  secure  land  for  sugar  plantations.  Cattle  and  sheen 
for  home  consumption  are  raised  in  the  interior;  corn,  wheat, 
rubber,  grapes,  tobacco  and  silk  worms  could  be  successfully  cul- 
tivated, but  as  none  of  these  are  as  profitable  as  sugar-cane,  they 
all  give  way  to  the  sugar  industry. 

Honolulu  on  Oahu  Island,  a  city  of  40,000  inhabitants,  is  the 
most  important  town.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  is  the  port 
of  call  for  the  largest  steamers  crossing  the  Pacific.  It  is  a  thor- 
oughly  modern  city,  having  electric  lights,  street  railways,  tine 
buildings  and  all  the  improvements  found  in  the  best  of  American 
cities.  The  business  of  the  islands  is  almost  wholly  in  the  hands 
of  Americans  and  Englishmen.  The  position  of  these  islands  is 
remarkably  favorable  for  commerce,  and  this  accounts  for  their 
rapid  increase  of  trade,  since  more  steamers  have  begun  to  ply 
between  the  United  States  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  ami  other 
eastern  ports.  The  islands  constitute  an  organized  territory,  and 
have  the  same  form  of  government  as  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

These  islands  form  an  archipelago  extending  from 
the  fourth  degree  to  the  twenty-firsi  degree  north 
latitude.  Their  greatest  extent  from  north  to 
south  is  about  1500  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  about  (>"><»  miles. 
They  lie  directly  east  of  the  China  Sea  and  north  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies.  The  total  number  of  islands  is  between  1600  and 
2()(M),  and  their  combined  area  about  115,000  square  miles,  being 
equal  to  that  of  .Michigan  and  Wisconsin  combined.  Mindanao 
and  Luzon,  the  two  largest,  are  each  about  the  size  of  the  state  of 
New  York,  and  are  classed  among  the  large  islands  of  the  world. 
The  other  islands  of  importance  are  Samar,  Negros,  Panay, 
Palawan,  Mindoro,  Leyte,  Cebu  and  Bohol. 

The  interior  of  the  large  islands  is  mountainous  and  heavily 
timbered.  The  forests  contain  mahogany,  ebony,  sandal-wood 
and- other  valuable  timber,  and  in  extent   are  estimated  to  have  an 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  253 

area  of  some  over  40,000,000  acres.  They  are  of  great  value,  and 
in  due  time  will  become  an  important  source  of  income  to  the 
islands.  Fortunately,  the  forest  areas  are  public  land,  and  have 
already  come  under  the  protection  of  the  national  Government,  so 
that  the  waste  that  the  forests  of  the  United  States  have  been  sub- 
jected to  will  be  prevented  here.  The  climate  is  tropical,  with  an 
abundance  of  rainfall.  There  are  three  seasons  :  the  dry-temperate, 
running  from  November  to  February  ;  the  dry-hot,  from  March  to 
May ;  and  the  rainy  or  wet-temperate,  from  June  to  October. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  capable  of  raising  good  crops  of  all  products 
which  are  suited  to  the  climate.  The  most  important  agricultural 
products  at  present  are  sugar,  hemp  and  tobacco,  each  of  which 
is  exported  in  considerable  quantities.  Rice,  Indian  corn,  coffee, 
cacao  and  indigo  are  also  raised  to  quite  an  extent. 

The  most  important  article  of  export  is  manila  hemp,  which  is 
the  fiber  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  the  native  tree  closely  related 
to  the  banana  and  plantain.  This  is  the  most  valuable  fiber  in  the 
world  for  the  manufacture  of  rope,  cordage  and  sacking,  and  thou- 
sands of  tons  are  exported  every  year.  Cocoa  nuts,  pineapples, 
copra,  which  is  the  dried  kernel  of  the  cocoanut,  and  timber  are  also 
exported.  Some  coal  is  mined  on  the  Island  of  Cebu  and  there  are 
also  deposits  of  iron  ore,  copper  and  sulphur,  but  they  have  been 
worked  only  slightly  by  the  natives  in  a  very  primitive  manner. 

The  large  islands  are  all  connected  by  telegraph,  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  American-Pacific  cable  in  1903  placed  Manila  in 
direct  communication  with  the  United  States  over  lines  which  are 
wholly  under  American  control.  There  are  also  about  seven  hun- 
dred miles  of  railroads.  The  population  is  estimated  at  about  eight 
millions,  and  is  of  mixed  character.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  have 
descended  from  the  Negritos  and  the  Malays.  There  are  about 
25,000  whites,  and  100,000  Chinese  on  the  islands.  These  are  en- 
gaged in  business,  and  industrial  enterprises. 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  255 

The  Philippines  contain  a  number  of  quite  important  towns, 
but  Manila  is  the  great  commercial  and  financial  center.  It  i-  situ- 
ated on  Manila  Bay,  on  the  east  coast  <>t*  Luzon,  and  has  one  of  t  be 
finest  harbors  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  harbor  now  has  a  large 
anchorage,  and  is  capable  of  considerable  extension  by  improve- 
ment. The  city  has  a  population  of  about  300,000,  and  is  divided 
into  the  old  and  the  new  town.  The  old  town  is  enclosed  within 
a  wall,  and  contains  a  number  of  substantial  public  buildings.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  sugar,  cigarettes  and  textiles  from  the 
native  fibers.  This  is  the  seat  of  government  for  the  islands,  and 
has  direct  steamer  communications  with  all  the  important  ports  on 
both  the  east  and  west  coast  of  the  Pacific.  Its  geographical  posi- 
tion is  such  as  to  make  Manila  an  important  distributing  eenter, 
and  it  is  destined  to  become  one  of  the  great  commercial  port-  of 
the  East. 

Lipa,  Batanzas,  Buan  and  Cavite,  are  cities  of  about  forty 
thousand  each,  and  all  have  commercial  relations  with  .Manila. 
Iloilo.  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  is  the  second  port  of  impor- 
tance, and  is  the  center  of  a  considerable  trade  in  hemp,  sugar. 
tobacco  and  sapan-wood.  Cebu  is  also  a  growing  commercial  port. 
The  general  government  is  in  the  hands  of  a  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  The  head  of  this 
commission  is  styled  the  governor-general,  and  is  the  chief  execu- 
tive. There  is  also  a  native  legislative  assembly  with  limited  powers. 
Local  government,  in  which  the  native  people  have  a  large  share,  is 
now  established  in  all  of  the  large  islands.  A  school  system  on 
the  American  plan  has  also  been  established,  and  is  meeting  the 
needs  of  the  people  as  rapidly  as  funds  for  the  purpose  can  be 
secured.  English.  Spanish  and  the  native  languages  arc  taught  in 
the  public  schools.  The  commercial  and  industrial  interests  of  the 
islands  arc  growing  in  value  and  importance,  and  with  the  intro- 
duction of  manufactures,  which  American  enterprise  is  bound  to 


256  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

secure  in  the  near  future,  the  prosperity  of  these  islands  will  be 

greatlv  increased. 

This  is  one  of  the  Ladrone  Islands,  and  was  secured  by 
treaty  from  Spain  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish- American 

War.     It  is  held  only  as  a  strategic  point,  port  of  call  and  coaling 

station  for  American  ships. 

This  is  a  small  island  of  the  Samoan  group,  and  was 

TUITUILA 

obtained  through  treaty  with  Germany  and  Great 

Britain.  It  is  of  value  as  a  naval  and  coaling  station.  The  princi- 
pal town,  Pago-Pago,  is  situated  on  an  excellent  harbor.  The 
commercial  importance  of  this  island,  like  that  of  Guam,  is  small, 
but  the  shipping  interests  of  the  United  States  in  the  Pacific  make 
this  port  one  of  great  convenience,  and  indirectly  one  of  value. 

The  combined  commerce  of  our  island  possessions  amounts  to 
about  $50,000,000  per  year.  Since  the  accession  of  these  islands 
•by  the  United  States  the  industrial  conditions  of  each  group  have 
continued  to  improve,  and  with  a  stable  government,  and  freedom 
from  restraint  and  unjust  taxation  which  they  can  now  enjoy,  they 
are  bound  to  increase  in  wreaith  and  importance. 

QUESTIONS. 

AVhat  has  led  to  the  recent  development  of  Alaska? 

What  American  seaports  are  engaged  in  trade  with  Alaska?  with 
Hawaii?  with  the  Philippines? 

Of  what  commercial  advantage  is  Porto  Rico  to  the  United  States? 

What  is  the  most  valuable  product  of  Hawaii? 

What  are  the  means  of  communication  between  Hawaii  and  the 
United  States?  between  the  Philippines  and  the  United  States? 

With  what  countries  is  most  of  the  commerce  of  the  Philippines 
carried  on?     AVhat  proportion  of  their  trade  is  with  the  United  States? 

What  is  the  United  States  Government  doing  to  improve  the  condi- 
tion of  these  islands? 


Chapter   XXIII. 
OUR   TRADE    WITH   OTHER    NATIONS. 

R„„„„min  A„^  -,^_»„-„  The  domestic  commerce  of  every 
DOMESTIC  AND  FOREIGN 

nation  is  greater  than  it>  foreign 
COMMERCE  COMPARED  , 

commerce.       As    we    nave    already 

seen,  the  United  States,  on  account  of  her  meat  extent  of  terri- 
tory, diversity  of  climate  and  resources,  has  an  unusually  large 
domestic  commerce;  and  were  we  compelled  so  to  do,  we  could 
supply  nearly  all  of  our  necessities  from  our  own  possessions. 
But  in  so  doing  we  should  not  pursue  a  wise  policy.  It  is  to 
our  advantage  to  trade  with  foreign  nations  for  the  following 
reasons  : 

First.  Because  many  of  these  nations  produce  what  we 
can  not,  as  coffee,  cacao  and  rubber;  while  others  produce  com- 
modities more  cheaply  than  we  can,  such  as  sugar  and  hemp. 

Second.  Certain  people  are  naturally  better  adapted  to 
certain  lines  of  work  than  others.  The  French  excel  in  the  manu- 
facture of  small  fancy  articles,  the  Belgians  in  lace,  the  Italians  in 
art  work  and  the  Germans  in  toys  and  scientific  apparatus.  These 
people  can  produce  such  articles  more  cheaply  than  we,  even 
though  they  did  the  work  no  better. 

Third.  We  can  produce  certain  commodities  that  other 
nations  can  not,  such  as  cotton  and  copper,  and  we  produce  many 
commodities  more  cheaply  or  'letter  than  other  nations  can,  espe- 
cially  the  great  food  staples,  wheat,  corn  and  meat. 

Fourth.  Interchange  of  commodities  between  nations  stimu- 
lates thought  and  promotes  industry.  In  all  ages  commerce  has 
been  the  greatest  promoter  of  civilization,  and  nations  that  refrain 


258  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

from  trading  with  other  nations,  or  who,  unneccessarily,  restrict 
their  foreign  trade,  never  take  a  prominent  place  among  the 
great  powers  of  the  world. 

The  same  principles  govern  foreign  commerce  as 

PRINCIPLES  . 

apply  to  domestic  commerce.     In   our  trade  at 

home  we  patronize  those  who  are  most  conveniently  located,  and 
who  otherwise  meet  our  demands  most  satisfactorily,  so  in  trading 
with  other  nations,  we  have  the  largest  proportion  of  trade  with 
those  who  are  most  conveniently  located,  and  with  those  with 
whom  our  exchange  of  commodities  is  best  suited  to  our  interests. 
The  exports  and  imports  between  nations  are  seldom  equal,  and 

the  difference    in  value    between 

these  is  known  as  the  balance  in 

trade.     The  nation  whose  exports 

exceed  in  value  its  imports,  has  a 

balance  of  trade  in  its  favor,  but 

the  nation  whose  imports  exceed 

its  exports  has  a  balance  of  trade 

against  it.     In  the  first  instance 

the  nation  may  be  called  a  cred- 

coMMEucE  jtor  .  m  f[le  second  it  is  a  debtor. 

In  our  commerce  with  other  nations,  in  late  years,  the  balance  of 

trade  has  usually  been  in  our  favor. 

Our  exports  are  naturally  from  those  commodities 
EXPORTS  tliat  we  proc|uce  jn  ti]e  largest  quantities.  The  first 
use  of  all  products  is  that  for  home  consumption,  then  the  surplus, 
if  any,  is  sent  to  foreign  markets.  For  this  reason  we  shall  find 
nearly  the  same  commodities  from  the  United  States  in  all  coun- 
tries with  which  we  have  trade,  although  they  vary  somewhat  in 
relative  proportion.  The  nations  of  Europe  and  Asia  use  more  of 
our  manufactured  iron  and  steel  than  do  those  of  the  tropical 
regions ;   while  the   nations   of  the   tropics  use    relatively    larger 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  259 

quantities  of  our  cotton  goods  than  the  nations  of  Europe  which 
do  their  own  manufacturing. 

While  our  exports  include  between  seventy  and  one  hundred 
commodities,  those  having  great  value  arc  comparatively  few  in 
number.  In  order  of  their  importance  they  arc.  agricultural 
products,  including  food  produce,  raw  material  and  domestic  ani- 
mals; manufactures,  including  iron  and  steel,  cotton  good-,  forest 
products,  leather  and  leather  manufactures;  petroleum  and  other 
oils,  and  manufactured  tobacco.  The  total  value  of  our  exports 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1907,  was  $1,880,851,078.  (As 
shown  by  the  table  on  page  272.)  Our  agricultural  implements, 
tools,  machinery  and  railway  appliances  are  found  in  nearly  every 
civilized  country  on  the  globe ;  our  cotton  goods  go  to  all  coun- 
tries except  those  of  Europe  and  British  India,  and  our  hoots  and 
shoes  have  an  extensive  sale.  In  relative  importance  our  exports 
are  as  follows  : 

TV.H    CENT 

Agricultural  Products 62.73 

Manufactures 2!). 28 

Forest  Products 4.16 

Mining  Products 2.81 

Our  imports  are  of  a  more  varied  character  than  our 

IMPORTS 

exports,  since  we  obtain  from  each  country  it- 
principal  products  which  we  can  secure  to  our  best  advantage. 
From  the  tropical  countries  of  South  America  and  the  Wesl  Indies 
we  import  coffee,  cacao,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  rubber,  cinchona 
and  various  other  drugs;  and  from  other  tropical  regions  we 
obtain  spices,  gums  and  drugs.  Most  of  our  coffee  comes  from 
Brazil,  and  all  of  our  rubber  from  South  America,  Central  America 
and  Mexico.  Raw  material  in  the  shape  of  hides,  wool  and  fiber 
is  al>o  imported  from  these  countries. 

From  Europe  we  obtain  raw  material  for  manufacturing,  such 


260  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

as  iron,  yarns  and  numerous  other  articles  that  are  partially  man- 
ufactured. We  also  import  from  European  countries  many  manu- 
factured articles,  such  as  woolen  and  silk  goods,  ribbons,  gloves, 
scientific  .apparatus  and  numerous  small  articles,  like  steel  pens  and 
cutlery,  from  England,  jewelry  from  France  and  artwork  from  Italy. 

From  China  and  Japan  we  obtain  most  of  our  tea  and  raw  silk, 
and  from  India,  tea,  certain  varieties  of  cotton  goods,  Indian  rugs, 
and  other  manufactures  peculiar  to  that  country.  From  Australia 
we  obtain  wool  and  hides.  Our  trade  with  Africa  is  small,  and 
while  American  machinery  and  a  few  other  products  are  exported 
in  considerable  quantities  to  this  continent,  our  imports  from 
African  countries  are  very  light. 

The  bulk  of  our  foreign  trade  is  carried  on  with  the  European 
nations;  The  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  France,  Belgium  and 
Netherlands  in  the  order  named,  being  the  most  important.  Europe 
takes  about  three-fourths  of  our  exports,  and  furnishes  us  with 
about  one-half  of  our  imports.  Many  of  the  exports  to  European 
countries,  especially  to  England,  are  not  used  there,  but  are  sent 
on  to  Asiatic,  African  and  even  South  American  people.  Of  the 
other  nations,  Canada  is  the  most  important  in  North  America, 
Brazil,  Argentina  and  Chili  in  South  America,  and  Japan  and 
China  in  Asia.  In  the  order  of  their  value,  our  imports  are 
sugar,  coffee,  chemicals  and  drugs,  hides  and  skins,  cotton  goods, 
iron  and  steel  manufactures,  raw  silk  and  silk  goods.  In  their 
relative  proportions  they  are  as  follows  : 

PER  CENT 

Raw  Material 38 

Food  and  Domestic  Animals 21 

Manufactures 16.79 

Luxuries 14.47 

The  map  of  ocean  routes  shows  that  the  lead- 
TRANSPORTATION     ing  Atlantic  ports  nave  numerous  lines  of 


COMiMEKCE    AM)    INDI'STKY  jJ61 

steamers  plying  between  them  and  Liverpool,  Hamburg,  Bor- 
deaux and  other  important  European  cities,  and  thai  San  Francisco, 
Seattle,  Portland  and  Tacoma  have  important  lines  of  steamers  con- 
necting them  with  the  Hawaiian  Island-,  the  ports  of  Japan  and 
China,  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Australia. 

Unfortunately  for  the  interests  of  the  country,  less  than  one- 
eighth  of  our  foreign  trade  is  carried  in  American  ships  :  English, 
French  and  German  vessels  do  most  of  our  carrying  trade.  The 
manufacturing  capacity  of  the  country  is  now  able  to  produce  much 
more  than  we  can  consume  at  home,  and  it  is  to  our  advantage  t<> 
seek  foreign  markets.  With  an  American  merchant  marine  this 
could  be  done  much  more  efficiently  than  is  possible  under  the 
present  conditions.  Various  measures,  such  as  subsidies  and 
bounties,  have  been  suggested  as  a  means  of  building  up  the 
American  merchant  marine,  but  none  has  yet  been  adopted.  The 
two  principal  reasons  for  the  present  conditions  of  American 
shipping  are:  the  Civil  War  occurred  just  at  the  time  when  steel 
ships  were  replacing  those  of  wood,  and  all  the  attention  of  the 
country  was  directed  to  the  war:  and  since  the  war  we  have  given 
so  much  thought  to  the  development  of  our  internal  resources, 
that  the  building  of  ships  for  foreign  trade  has  been  neglected. 
The  European  nations  were  alive  to  their  opportunity,  and  during 
these  periods  secured  control  of  most  of  the  ocean  carrying  trade. 
Our  merchant  marine  on  the  Pacific  is  increasing  since  tin-  erreal 
transcontinental  railways  are  interested  in  maintaining  lines  of 
steamers  between  our  Pacific  ports  and  those  of  Asia.  Two 
steamers  recently  built  by  the  Great  Northern  Railway  Company 
for  this  purpose  were  among  the  largest  freighl  boat-  afloat,  but 
one  was  wrecked.  This  line  of  traffic  now  controls  its  own  railway 
and  steamship  lines  from  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  to  the  port-  in 
China  and  Japan  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  its  carrying 
trade  reaches  eastward  as  far  as  London  and  Liverpool. 


262  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  should  the  domestic  commerce  of  a  nation  exceed  its  foreign 
commerce  ? 

Show  how  commerce  promotes  civilization. 

"Why  do  we  import  iron  and  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  when  we  are 
constantly  exporting  these  commodities? 

With  what  European  ports  does  New  York  have  direct  steamer  connec- 
tions?    Does  Boston  have  connection  with  the  same  ports? 

Why  is  such  a  large  proportion  of  our  foreign  trade  carried  in  the 
ships  of  other  nations  ? 

What  has  contributed  to  the  rapid  increase  of  our  commerce  with 
China  and  Japan  ? 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


263 


Proportion  of  Exports    from    the    United  Status  to  Otheb 
Countries  r\   the   Different  Continents. 


CONTINENT 

PI  R    CENT 

North  America           ..... 

South  America       ..... 

Europe      ....... 

Asia      ....... 

Australasia        ...... 

Africa            ...... 

54.38 

12.66 

14.48 
4.66 

11.93 
5.58 

Proportion  of  Exports   from    Other    Countries  in  the  Dif- 
ferent Continents  Received  by  the  United  States. 


CONTINENT 

PEK  CENT 

North  America           .         .         .          . 

South  America       ..... 

Europe      ....... 

Asia      ....... 

Australasia        ...... 

Africa  ....... 

50.25 
10.97 
44.50 
10.91 
8.77 
2.24 

264  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

EXPORTS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 
TO   THE   DIFFERENT   COUNTRIES   OF   THE    WORLD. 

North  America. 

Cotton    goods,    tools,    hardware,   agricultural    imple- 
merits,  vehicles,  sewing  machines,  furniture,  clocks, 

watches,  and  shoes. 

Vehicles,  hardware,  tools,  scientific  instruments,  sew- 
ing machines,  furniture,  books,  cotton  goods,  boots 

and  shoes. 

Central  America        Hardware,  wire,  tools,  flour,  cotton  goods. 

Cotton    ooods,    agricultural    implements,    hard- 
West  Indies  •"     •**    -• 

ware,  scientific  instruments,  tools,  sewing  ma- 
chines, vehicles. 

South  America. 

Cotton    goods,    cotton    and    sugar 
United  States  of  Colombia  machinery)  silver  plated  ware< 

Hardware,    paper,    cotton    goods,    canned    goods, 

Venezuela     a 

flour. 

Guiana       Shoes,  wagons,  cotton  and  linen  goods,  flour. 

Carriages,  hardware,  tools,  scientific  instruments,  sew- 

ing  machines,  clocks  and  watches,  cotton  goods. 

Hardware,    electric    supplies,    agri- 
Paraguay  and  Uruguay      cultural  implementSj  varnish,  can. 

vas,  cordage,  cotton  goods. 

Agricultural  implements,  hardware,  tools,  wagons 
r°;en      a      and      carriages,     scientific      instruments,     sewing 
machines,  machinery,  cotton  goods. 

Plows,  thrashing  machines,  locomotives,  lamps,  cotton 

Chile  , 

goods. 

Peru,  Ecuador,  Bolivia     Hardware,  cotton  goods. 


commerce  and  industry  265 

Europe. 

Agricultural  implements,  electrical  machin- 
United  Kingdom       (>].N%   |jar<jware,  vehicles,    scientific    Instru- 
ments, typewriters,  sewing  machines,  furniture,  boot-  and  >hoes, 
cotton  goods,  dressed  meats. 

Agricultural     machinery,    wagons    and    carriages, 
Germany        tools,  hoot   and    shoe  machinery,  furniture,  type- 
writers, sewing  machines,  cotton  goods,  dressed  meats. 

Agricultural  implements  and  tools,  sewing  machines, 
rrance       scientific  instruments,  hardware,  furniture,  bicycles. 

Agricultural  implements,  railway  appliances,  bicycles, 
Austria      scientific     instruments,     hardware,     pumps,     leather 
t-oods,  cotton  goods,  flour,  beer. 

.Machinery,     hardware,     watches     and     clocks,     sewing 
Italy       machines* 

Spain  and  Portugal      Hardware,  scientific  instruments,  flour. 

Agricultural  machinery,  locomotives  and  railway  sup- 
USSia         plies,     machinery,    hardware,    rope,     leather    goods, 
rubber. 

Asia. 

Locomotives,    rails,     hardware,    machinery    and 
British  India     fcoolgj  bioycle8f  docks. 

Hardware,   tools,   scientific    instruments,   sew- 
n  nese         p    e     jng  machines,  furniture,  cotton  goods,  canned 
goods,  flour. 

Locomotives,  railway  appliances,  tools,  bicycles,  scien- 
P  tific  instruments,  machinery,  nails,  furniture,  flour. 

Railway  appliances,  locomotives,  electrical  machinery, 
Sibepia     flour. 


266  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

Australia. 

Agricultural  machinery,  vehicles,  hardware,  typewriters,  sew- 
ing machines,  tools,  scientific  instruments,  watches  and  clocks, 
cotton  goods,  boots  and  shoes. 

Africa. 

Flour,  dairy  products,  canned  goods, 

Mediterranean  Countries  i  •  i  ,•  j       i 

cunwiaucau     ««    *    w      machinery,  locomotives  and  railway 

appliances,  agricultural  implements,  iron  and  steel  goods,  jewelry. 

Agricultural  machinery,  mining  machinery,  elec- 

trical   machinery,   railway    appliances,    bicycles, 

typewriters,    hardware,    wagons,    clocks    and    watches,    scientific 

instruments,  books,  boots  and  shoes,  canned  goods. 


Chapter    XXIV. 
COMMERCIAL  GROWTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  first  census  of  the  United  States  was  taken  in  1790.  At 
that  time  the  western  boundary  of  the  country  was  at  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  and  the  area  was  827,84  1  square  miles,  only  a  small 
portion  of  which  was  settled,  and  this  constituted  a  narrow  ship 
of  land  extending  from  Maine  to  Georgia,  and  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  to  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  Our  population  was  only  half 
a  million  more  than  the  population  of  New  York  City  in  L900,  and 
was  exceeded  in  our  last  census  by  the  population  of  each  of  the 
following  states:  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois  and  Ohio.  In 
1790  there  were  only  three  cities  that  were  worthy  of  the  name  : 
Philadelphia,  New  York  and  Boston,  and  these  were  scarcely  more 
than  good-sized  villages.  There  was  no  such  thing  in  the  world  as 
a  railroad,  a  steamboat  or  a  telegraph.  Even  carriage  roads  were 
few,  and  so  poor  that  they  were  impassable  a  good  portion  of  the 
year.  The  country  possessed  only  nine  hundred  post  offices,  and 
the  annual  receipts  of  the  postal  department  were  about  $281,000. 
Less  than  fifty  newspapers  were  published  in  the  entire  country. 

The  nation  was  burdened  with  a  debt  that  was  equal  to  $15.63 
per  capita.  The  total  amount  of  coinage  was  a  little  over  half  a 
million  dollars.  There  were  no  banks  under  national  supervision, 
and  the  value  of  our  manufactures  was  so  small  that  it  did  not  ap- 
pear in  the  census  report.  The  annual  revenue  of  the  government 
was  about  $10,849,000.  Our  imports  amounted  to  *!•  1  ,l\"><>,00() 
and  our  exports  to  about  $71,000,000,  making  our  entire  foreign 
trade  about  $162,250,000. 

Our  industries  had  been  ruined  by  a  long  war;  our  currency 

267 


268  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

was  worthless,  and  our  credit  gone.  The  only  industry  at  all 
comparable  with  those  of  foreign  nations  was  our  carrying  trade. 
We  had  over  100,000  vessels  and  two-thirds  of  our  tonnage  was 
engaged  in  foreign  trade.  No  patents  were  issued,  no  immigrants 
arrived,  and  the  nations  predicted  the  speedy  downfall  of  the  new 
republic. 

The  condition  of  the  nation  at  the  census  of  1900  shows  ;i 
progress  during  the  intervening  period  unequalled  by  that  of  any 
other  nation  in  the  world's  history.  From  less  than  three-fourths 
of  a  million  square  miles  our  territory  increased  to  3,025,000 
square  miles,  or  over  three  and  a  half  times.  From  the  narrow 
area  occupied  by  our  forefathers  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution, 
American  settlements  and  institutions  have  extended  more  than  half 
the  way  round  the  world,  and  the  extent  of  our  Pacific  coast  line 
exceeds  the  distance  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 

The  last  census  shows  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  the  United  States  contained  over  900  cities  of  5,000  or 
more  inhabitants  ;  and  that  of  this  number,  159  had  a  population 
of  25,000  or  more. 

The  census  of  1830  reported  twenty-three  miles  of  railway  iit 
operation,  and  that  of  1900  reported  194,321  miles,  which  number 
has  since  been  increased  to  over  220,000  miles.  We  now  have 
over  62,663  postoffices,  and  the  annual  receipts  of  the  postoffice 
department  exceed  $183,585,000.  In  1790  there  were  less  than 
fifty  newspapers  in  the  country,  and  in  1907  this  number  had 
increased  to  21,745.  Telegraph  messages  were  not  reported  until 
1870,  when  they  exceeded  9,157,000,  and  in  1900  this  number 
had  increased  to  over  63,258,000;  and  in  1907  the  number  was 
91,391,443,  an  increase  of  nearly  tenfold  in  thirty  years.  The 
first  telegraph  line  was  completed  in  1844,  and  extended  between 
Washington  and  Baltimore,  a  distance  of  forty  miles.  In  1900 
the  country  had  over  933,000  miles  of  lines,  and  these  have  now 


COMMERCE   AND  INDUSTRY  269 

been  extended  to  exceed  1,300,000  miles.  The  first  public  experi- 
ment with  the  telephone  was  made  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  in 
Philadelphia  in  1876.  In  1907  there  were  in  the  country  3,24  1.171 
miles  of  telephone  lines,  2,727,289  stations,  and  the  daily  exchanges 
exceeded  16,478,000. 

In  1900,  the  gold  and  silver  coined  by  the  country  exceeded 
$135,500,000,  and  the  total  money  in  circulation  was  a  little  more 
than  $2,055,000,000,  or  $26.93  per  capita,  which  had  now  been 
increased  to  $33.86.  There  were  3606  national  banks  having  a 
total  capital  of  $608,588,045,  and  in  1907  this  number  has  been 
increased  to  6043  with  a  capital  of  over  $842,685,939,  and  the 
bank  clearings  of  the  country  exceeded  151,662,000,000.  In 
1907,  the  revenue  of  the  Government  was  $665,306,134,  and  the 
expenditures  $578,360,592.  The  value  of  our  agricultural  prod- 
ucts exceeds  $7,550,000,000,  and  of  our  manufactures  814,000.- 
000,000.  Our  imports  amounted  to  nearly  SI  ,434,421,425  and 
our  exports  exceeded  one  and  three-fourths  billions;  and  31, '.'65 
different  patents  were  issued  during  the  year. 

The  United  States  began  the  twentieth  century  under  exceed- 
ingly favorable  conditions.  The  period  from  1870  to  1900  had  wit- 
nessed remarkable  progress  running  through  all  lines  of  industrial 
and  commercial  activity.  Our  industrial  and  commercial  posi- 
tion in  the  world  is  shown  by  the  following  comparisons.  We 
produce  live-sixths  of  the  cotton,  one-sixth  of  the  wool,  three- 
fourths  of  the  corn,  one-fifth  of  the  wheat,  one-third  of  the  coal, 
one-fourth  of  the  cattle,  one-half  of  the  hogs,  a  little  more  than 
one-third  of  the  iron  and  steel,  two-thirds  of  the  copper,  one-fifth 
of  the  silver,  one-half  of  the  gold,  one-half  of  the  tobacco,  one- 
third  of  the  lumber,  one-third  of  the  manufactures  and  one-fourth 
of  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

In  manufactures  we  lead  the  world,  and  our  manufactures 
exceed  those  of    the    United    Kingdom    and  Germany  combined, 


United  States 


Rest  of  the  World 


270  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

who  stand  next  to  us  as  the  two  greatest  manufacturing  nations. 
We  own  nearly  one-half  of  the  railway  mileage  and  more  than 
one-half  of  the  telegraph  and  telephone  lines  of  the  world.  Our 
total  commerce  is  exceeded  only  by  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  our 
trade  with  foreign  countries  is  steadily  increasing. 

The  geographical  position  of  the  United  States  is  such  that  it 
is  especially  favorable  for  international  trade.     Situated  between 

the  two  oceans  we  have  equal 
facilities  for  trade  with  the  coun- 
tries of  both  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  our  position  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  gives  us  an  excellent 
opportunity  to  increase  our  traf- 
fic with  this  part  of  the  world. 
There  is  a  widespread  interest  in 
industrial  and  commercial  educa- 
T"BACC0  tion,  and  the  schools  of  the  coun- 

try are  each  year  sending  out  thousands  of  young  men  specially 
fitted  for  a  business  career. 

Our  greatest  hindrances  are  the  lack  of  training  among  our 
consuls  and  commercial  representatives  abroad,  the  unwillingness 
of  the  great  majority  of  American  manufacturers  to  study  intel- 
ligently the  needs  of  foreign  countries  and  to  make  such  goods 
as  the  inhabitants  of  those  countries  desire.  This  is  especially 
true  of  our  inability  to  adapt  our  manufactures  to  the  wants  of  the 
people  in  tropical  countries.  We  also  lack,  as  already  stated,  an 
efficient  American  merchant  marine.  Only  about  13  per  cent  of 
our  imports  and  7  per  cent  of  our  exports  are  carried  in  American 
vessels. 

These  conditions  are  not  discouraging  ;  for,  since  our  acquisi- 
tion of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  the  Philippines  and  Porto  Rico,  and 
our  recent  extended  relations  with  other  nations,  we  have  begun  to 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  271 

make  the  necessary  preparations  for  successfully  maintaining  the 
new  conditions  and  responsibilities  which  these  additions  of  terri- 
tory have  forced  upon  the  country  :  and  we  have  every  reason  to 
believe  that  the  United  States  will  continue  to  maintain  the 
national  and  commercial  prestige  with  which  she  began  the  cen- 
tury. The  statement  on  the  following  page,  taken  from  the 
Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  of  the  department 
of  Commerce  and  Labor,  shows  the  progress  of  the  United  States 
in  tabular  form. 

Note  While  the  statistics  on  the  foregoing  page  are  correct  for  the 
year  in  which  they  are  given,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  amounts 
will   vary  slightly   from   year   to   year.     The    chief    purpose    of    these 

statistics,  however,  is  to  show  the  relative  importance  of  the  industries 
with  which  they  are  connected,  and  this  relative  position  seldom  changes 


272 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


ITEM 

DATE    AND   VALUE 

DATE    AND   VALUE 

(1800) 

(1907) 

Area 

827,844 

3,025,600 

Population 

5,308,483 

85,593,803 

Population  per  square  mile 

6  41 

28.28 

Circulation  of  money  per  capita 

$5.00 

$33.86 

(1850) 

(1900) 

Farms  and  farm  property 

$3,967  343.580 
(1870) 

$20,514,007,838 

Farm  products 

$1,958,030,927 
(1850) 
123,025 

$3,764,177,706 

Manufacturing  establishments.  No. 

216,262 

Value  of  manufactures 

$1,019,106,616 
(1800) 

$14,802,147,087 

Imports  of  merchandise 

$91,252,768 

$1,434,421,425 

Imports  per  capita 

$17.19 

16.76 

Exports  of  merchandise 

$70,971,780 

$1,880,851,078 

Exports  per  capita 

$13.37 

(1810) 

$21.66 

Production  of  gold 

$2,463 
(1850) 

$96,101,400 

Silver 

$150,000 
(1820) 

$37,642,900 

Coal,  tons 

365 

(1860) 

369,783,284 

Petroleum,  gals. 

21,000,000 

(1820) 

5,312,745,312 

Pig  iron,  tons 

20,000 
(1850) 

25,307,091 

Wool,  lbs. 

35,802,114 
(1840) 

298,915,130 

Wheat,  bu. 

84.823  272 

735,260,970 

Corn,  bu. 

377.531,875 

(1800) 

2,927,416,091 

Cotton,  bales 

155,556 

(1830) 

13,510,982 

Cotton  exported,  lbs. 

298,459,102 

(1830) 

4,518,217,200 

Railways  operated,  miles 

20 
(J800) 

222,635 

Post-offices,  No. 

903 

(1810) 

62,659 

Newspapers,  No. 

359 

(1820) 

21,735 

Immigrants  arrived 

8,385 

1,285,349 

PART   THREE. 
COMMERCE   OF   FOREIGN    NATIONS. 

Foreign  countries  in  their  trade  with  the  United  States  and 
with  each  other  are  governed  by  the  principles  laid  down  in  the 
discussion  of  the  commerce  of  our  own  country.  They  buy  what 
they  can  not  produce,  or  what  other  countries  can  produce  better 
or  more  economically,  and  sell  whal  they  can  produce  in  the 
largest  quantity  and  to  their  greatest  economical  advantage. 

Chapter  I. 

CANADA. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada,  the  most  important 
EXTENT  AND  g^tish  co[onyj  occupies  all  of  the  mainland  of 
SURFACE  North  America  north  of  the  United  States,  with 

the  exception  of  Alaska.  It  is  a  little  larger  than  the  United 
States  and  a  little  smaller  than  Europe.  The  surface  is  divided 
into  three  great  regions:  the  Eastern  Highlands,  the  Great  Central 
Plain  and  the  Pacific  Highlands  and  coast  region.  The  Central 
Plain  is  divided  by  the  V-shaped  height  of  land  that  passes  around 
Hudson's  Bay  and  forms  a  low  plateau.  The  Rocky  Mountain 
system  forms  the  natural  boundary  between  Canada  and  Alaska, 
and  contains  some  of  the  loftiest  peaks  in  North  America.  The 
country  between  the  two  highlands  is  a  vast  extent  of  plains  and 
prairies,  and  the  Eastern  Highland  region  is  interspersed  with  low 
hills,  fertile  valleys  and  mountains  which  have  an  altitude  some- 
what less  than  the  average  ranges  of  the  Appalachian  system. 

273 


274  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

Canada  lies  in  the  cool  temperate  and  the  frigid  zones. 
lima  The  eastern  peninsula  and  the  southern  portion  of 
Quebec  and  Ontario  have  a  climate  similar  to  that  of  New  England 
and  New  York.  The  Pacific  Coast  regions,  owing  to  the  warm 
ocean  current,  have  a  mild  climate  with  an  equable  temperature 
and  abundant  rainfall.  The  Central  Plain  has  a  wide  range  of 
temperature  and  slight  rainfall.  The  northern  part  of  the  Domin- 
ion is  too  cold  to  admit  of  successful  agriculture,  but  the  other 
portions  have  a  favorable  climate  and  a  fertile  soil,  and  pro- 
duce excellent  crops  of  all  grains  and  vegetables  adapted  to  cool 
temperate  regions. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry  of  Canada. 
°  About  three-fourths  of  the  people  are  farmers, 

and  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  land  is  suitable  for  tillage,  but  a 
large  proportion  of  this  in  the  interior  is  still  undeveloped.  The 
eastern  part  of  Ontario,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Lakes,  is  the 
most  fertile  region  and  is  called  the  "Garden  of  Canada."  Cereals, 
live-stock  and  fruits  are  raised  here  in  abundance.  Manitoba, 
Alberta  and  Saskatchewan,  occupying  the  fertile  region  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  constitute  the  great  wheat  belt.  This  is  a 
prairie  country,  having  a  rich  soil  underlaid  by  a  layer  of  clay 
that  holds  the  water  near  enough  to  the  surface  to  warrant  a  good 
supply  for  vegetation.  As  a  spring  wheat  section,  this  region  is 
even  more  important  than  that  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas, 
and  is  destined  to  become  the  greatest  wheat  growing  region  of 
the  world.  Since  1900  this  portion  of  the  country  has  been 
rapidly  settled  by  emigrants  from  the  United  States,  the  eastern 
provinces  and  Europe.  Quebec,  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia 
are  engaged  in  diversified  farming  and  in  dairying.  Butter  and 
cheese  of  excellent  quality  are  made  and  Canada  has  become  the 
largest  exporter  of  cheese  in  the  world. 

The  principal  agricultural    exports  are   wheat,  flour,  cheese, 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  275 

butter,  live-stock  and  poultry.      Most   of  the  perishable  products 

arc  sent  to  England  in  refrigerator  ships. 

The  foresl  areas  of  Canada  extend  from   Nova  Scotia 
Lumber  ,   v        ,>  .  ,  ,     ,        .    ,.  . 

and   .New   Brunswick   in  an   unbroken   l>elt   across  the 

country  to  Alaska,  and  in  British  Columbia  to  the  coast  and  north- 
ward to  the  limit  of  the  tree  line.  The  bell  is  from  two  to  three 
hundred  miles  wide,  and  is  the  largesl  foresl  area  possessed  by  any 
lumber  producing  country.  In  the  eastern  section  of  this  belt  the 
principal  trees  are  the  red  and  black  spruce,  the  red  and  white 
pine,  the  balsam  fir,  the  tamarack  and  hemlock,  and  in  British 
Columbia  the  Douglas  fir  is  the  chief  source  of  lumber  supply. 
Ottawa  is  the  chief  center  of  the  lumber  industry,  and  obtains  its 
supply  of  timber  from  the  pine  forests  to  the  north  and  northwest. 
Extensive  mills  are  also  found  on  Parry  Sound  and  Georgian  Bay. 
Most  of  the  lumber  of  this  region  is  exported  to  the  United  State- 
by  the  way  of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  lumber  manufactured  in 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  finds  a  market  in  the  New  Eng- 
land States.  The  forests  of  this  region  also  supply  considerable 
wood  pulp  and  pulp  wood.  The  lumber  of  Quebec  and  a  portion 
of  that  of  New  Brunswick  is  exported  to  England,  while  the  British 
Columbian  mills  find  a  market  for  their  surplus  product  in  trade 
with  the  Pacific  towns  of  the  United  States. 

The  mineral  resources  are  only  partially  developed. 
Minerals       v  ,     ,  ,        .,  ,  ',     ,  .     v 

Valuable  anthracite  coal  mine-  are  worked   in  Aova 

Scotia,  and   deposits   of  bituminous  coal   are    found   on   both    the 

Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts,  hut  gold  is  the  leading  mineral  product, 

the  annual  output   being  aboul    $10,000,000.      Most  of  tin-  comes 

from  the  mines  in  the  Klondike  region  of  the  Yukon,  and  those  in 

British  Columbia  along  the   Fraser  and  Columbia   Rivers.     Mines 

of  less  importance  are  also  located  in  Ontario  and  Nova  Scotia. 

Iron-ore  is  found  in  Belle  Isle,  Nova  Scotia,  in  Newfoundland, 

and  in  several  places  in  Quebec,  bu I  it  has  not  yel  been  extensively 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  277 

worked  in  any  of  those  places.  Nickel  mines  are  located  at  Sud- 
bury, Ontario,  and  produce  one-half  of  the  world's  supply  of  this 
metal.  Native  copper  is  found  on  the  northern  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  copper-ore  also  occurs  in  Quebec  and  British 
Columbia,  and  has  been  worked  successfully  in  all  these  places,, 
but  the  entire  output  of  copper,  compared  with  that  of  the  United 
States,  is  very  small.  Petroleum  and  asbestos  are  also  valuable 
mineral  products  of  these  provinces. 

The  fisheries  are  one  of  the  most  valuable  assets  of 
the  Dominion.  They  give  employment  to  about 
70,000  men,  and  yield  on  an  average,  an  annual  income  of 
$20,000,000.  The  most  extensive  part  of  this  industry  is  along 
the  Atlantic  coast.  Since  foreign  vessels  are  prohibited  from 
fishing  within  three  miles  of  the  shore,  in  the  strip  of  water  inside 
this  limit,  the  Canadian  fishermen  find  an  abundant  supply  of  cod, 
herring,  halibut  and  lobsters.  People  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick  are  very  generally  engaged  in  the  taking  and  curing  of 
fish.  The  product  is  exported  to  the  United  States,  the  West 
Indies  and  Europe.  British  Columbia  is  the  source  of  important 
salmon  fisheries,  and  about  one-fourth  of  the  output  of  fish  in  the 
Dominion  comes  from  this  region.  The  (neat  Lukes  supply  white 
fish,  trout  and  sturgeon.  Most  of  the  latter  are  taken  from  Lake 
Huron. 

Since  the  advent  of  the  early   French  settlers,   Canada 
FURS 

has  been  one  of  the  leading  fur  countries  of  the  world, 

and  the  great  forests  of  the  interior  still  furnish  a  good  supply,  as 

nearly    every    animal    of    that    locality    is    a    fur-bearing    animal. 

Edmonton,  in  Alberta,  is  the  chief  center  of  this  traffic.      Here  the 

trappers  bring    the  pelts  and    exchange  them    for    food,  clothing 

and    such    other    commodities    as    they    may   need.     The  cheaper 

skins  are  prepared  in  Canada  or  the   United   States,  but   the  more 

expensive    ones    are    exported    to    England.       The    fur    trade    is 


278  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

controlled  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  which,  until  recently, 

exercised  political  sway  over  much  of  the  northern  part  of  British 

America. 

Canada  is   not  an   important  manufacturing 
M  ANIIF  APTTTRFS 

country,  though  manufacturing  industries  are 

being  slowly  developed.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this ;  one  is 
that  the  wages  paid  in  the  United  States  are  such  as  to  draw  many 
of  the  most  skillful  workmen  away  from  the  Dominion  ;  and  the 
other  is,  that  Canada,  notwithstanding  the  tariff,  can  purchase  the 
same  grade  of  manufactures  from  the  United  States  cheaper  than 
they  can  be  made  at  home.  Montreal  is  the  leading  manufacturing 
center,  and  has  large  sugar  refineries,  also  iron  foundries,  cotton 
and  shoe  factories,  and  numerous  other  industries.  Toronto  also 
has  several  important  manufactories,  and  Quebec  has  large  tanner- 
ies. Windsor,  opposite  Detroit,  and  Hamilton,  Ontario,  are 
becoming  manufacturing  centers  of  local  importance.  Most  of  the 
manufactured  product  is  for  home  consumption,  though  agricul- 
tural implements,  cheap  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  cutlery,  leather 
and  shoes  are  exported  to  a  limited  extent. 

Quebec  and  Ontario  are  well  supplied  with 

TRANSPORTATION         .,        ,       4,      ,  u    +u    n       a  w       1 

railroads;  the  former  by  the  Grand  trunk, 

the  Central  Vermont  and  Boston  &  Maine  Systems  ;  the  latter  by 
the  Grand  Trunk  and  Canadian  Pacific  lines.  The  Intercolonial 
Railway  extends  from  New  Brunswick  to  Montreal,  and  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  from  Montreal  to  British  Columbia,  having  branch 
connections  with  Detroit,  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis.  This  is  the 
longest  continuous  line  in  North  America.  Branch  connections  of 
the  Northern  Pacific  and  the  Great  Northern  extend  to  Winnipeg, 
and  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific,  projected  by  the  Grand  Trunk  Com- 
pany, will  provide  an  outlet  for  the  great  wheat  region.  In  all, 
the  Dominion  has  about  18,000  miles  of  railway. 

The  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes  furnish  a  waterway  of 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


279 


over  2400  miles  inland.  This  has  been  greatly  improved  by 
canal-,  as  described  in  Chapter  XVII.,  Part  II.  The  Saskatche- 
wan and  McKenzie  Rivers  afford  water  routes  to  the  great  central 
interior  during  the  summer. 

While  the  Atlantic  ports  of  Canada  are,  on  account  of  the 
form  of  the  earth,  nearer  Liverpool  than  those  of  the  United 
States,  yet  they  have  the  disadvantage  of  being  closed  by  ice  dur- 


t.^      ^EB& 


VICTORIA    BRIDGE.    MONTREAL 


ing  a  portion  of  the  year,  so  that  the  United  States  ports  have  to 
bo  used  for  the  eastern  outlets  of  the  Dominion  during  the  winter. 
Montreal,  having  a  population  of  270,000,  is  the  com- 
mercial and  financial  center  of  the  Dominion.  It  is 
the  principal  terminus  of  the  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railways,  has  huge  manufacturing  industries,  numerous 
banks,  and  during  the  summer  is  the  terminus  for  trans-Atlantic 
lines  of  steamers.      Toronto   is  the   principal   city  of  Ontario  and 


280 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


second  in  importance  in  the  Dominion.  It  has  important  manu- 
facturing industries  and  is  the  trading  center  for  a  large  portion  of 
well  developed  and  wealthy  country.  It  has  good  steamer  con- 
nections on  Lake  Ontario,  is  an  important  railway  center  and 
carries  on  considerable  trade  with  the  United  States.  Quebec  has 
a  good  harbor  and  some  foreign  commerce,  but  it  is  of  more  inter- 
est historically  than  commercially.     Halifax  is  the  most  important 


THE   HARBOR,   QUEBEC  * 

seaport  of  the  maritime  provinces  and  has  a  good  harbor.  Winni- 
peg, with  a  population  of  65,000,  is  now  an  important  railway  and 
distributing  center  in  Manitoba,  and  the  districts  to  the  west  and 
northwest.  It  is  in  the  center  of  the  great  Canadian  wheat 
region  and  is  destined  to  become  a  commercial  city  of  considerable 
importance.  Vancouver  and  Victoria,  in  British  Columbia,  are  the 
important  trading  centers  of  these  provinces.  They  have  direct 
lines  of  steamers  plying  between  them  and  Asiatic  ports,  and 
others  connecting  them  with  the  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  281 

The  bulk  of  foreign  trade  is  with  Great  Britain  :m<l 
the  United  Stales,  between  which  it  isaboul  equally 
divided.  England  takes  most  of  the  surplus  raw  material  and 
dairy  products,  while  we  take  lumber,  coal,  fish  and  furs.  Canada 
imports  most  of  her  manufactures  from  the  United  States  and  they 
consist  of  cotton  goods,  agricultural  implements,  carriages,  machin- 
ery, clocks  and  watches,  hardware  and  boots  and  shoes.  Canada 
sells  to  Great  Britain  more  than  she  buys  of  her,  and  buys  of  us 
more  than  she  sells  us.  Her  internal  commerce  is  greatly  aided 
by  the  excellent  waterway  furnished  by  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
and  the  Great  Lakes  and  their  connecting  system  of  canals. 

Canada,  like  the  United  States,  has  developed  rapidly  during 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  in  which  time  her  trade  has  more 
than  doubled.  Since  the  opening  of  the  rich  lands  to  the  north 
and  west  of  Manitoba  this  region  is  being  peopled  by  the  most 
desirable  class  of  immigrants,  and  the  development  of  this  vast 
country  will  create  such  a  demand  for  manufactures,  that  undoubt- 
edly new  industries  which  will  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  country 
will  be  established. 

With  abundant  resources,  an  intelligent  and  progressive 
population  and  geographical  advantages  almost  equal  to  those  of 
the  United  States,  Canada  is  the  most  important  province  of  the 
British   Empire. 

Politically  Newfoundland  is  not  a  part  of  the 

NEWFOUNDLAND     n J    f  n       ,      ,    .   .  , 

Dominion   ot  Canada,  but  is  governed  as  a 

distinct  British  Colony.     Fishing  constitutes  the  principal  industry 

of  the  island.      There  are  also  many  good  farms,  and  agriculture  is 

practised  to  a  considerable  extent.      The  fish  are  exported   to  the 

United  States,  the  West  Indian  Islands  and   European  countries. 

St.  Johns,  the  capital,  has  a  fine  harbor  and  is  wholly  engaged  in 

the  fishing  trade.     There  are  no  other  towns  of  importance  on  the 

island. 


282  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

QUESTIONS. 

What  portions  of  the  United  States  have  a  climate  similar  to  that 
of  most  of  the  Canadian  provinces? 

Why  is  agriculture  the  principal  industry  of  Canada  ?  In  what  products 
does  Canada  compete  with  the  United  States  in  the  markets  of  the  world? 

What  portions  of  Canada  are  now  being  rapidly  developed?  What 
has  led  to  their  development? 

What  has  given  Montreal  and  Toronto  their  importance  as  commer- 
cial centers? 

What  are  Canada's  imports  from  the  United  States ?  What  does  she 
export  to  this  country  ? 


Chapter  II. 

MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

MEXICO. 

The  Republic  of  Mexico  extends  from  the  thirty- 
POSITION  AND  *    ,.      .,,       ,,     .  ..        t.  .  ...    f 

second  to  the  niteenth  degree  ot  north  latitude. 
EXTENT 

In  area  it  is  some  larger  than  that  part  of  the 

United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  It  is  a  long  and  narrow 
mountainous  plateau,  rising  abruptly  from  each  coast  to  a  height 
of  from  4000  to  8000  feet,  and  formed  by  a  continuation  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  which  are  here  known  as  the  Cordilleras. 
Some  of  the  volcanic  peaks  have  an  altitude  of  nearly  20,000  feet. 
The  location  of  Mexico  would  indicate  a  tropical 
Climate  ciimate,  but  this  is  greatly  modified  by  the  altitude. 
The  inhabitants  recognize  three  climatic  zones  ;  the  hot  zone, 
which  they  call  Tierra  Calienta,  extending  from  sea  level  to  an 
altitude  of  3000  feet;  the  temperate  zone-,  Tierra  Templada, 
extending  from  3000  to  5000  feet;  and  the  cold  zone,  Tierra 
Fria,  having  an  altitude  of  from  5000  to  70(10  feet  and  over. 
There  are  two  seasons,  the  hot,  extending  from  May  to  October, 
and  the  dry,  during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  During  the  wet 
season,  rain  falls  daily,  but  good  drainage  gives  the  temperate  belt 
very  healthful  climate.  The  interior  plateau  and  the  northern 
portion  of  the  western  coast  have  but  little  rain. 

The   agricultural   products  of  the   three  zones  are 

characteristic  of  their  respective  climates.      Along 

the  coast  and  in  the  lower  altitudes  coffee,  rubber,  sugar-cane  and 

tropical    fruits    are    the   staple  products;    in   the   temperate   belt, 

cereals,  especially  corn,  and  fruits  of  the  temperate  climates  are 

283 


284  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

cultivated.  Corn  is  the  most  important  crop,  and  Mexico  ranks 
third  among  the  corn-producing  countries  of  the  world,  being 
exceeded  by  the  United  States  and  Austria-Hungary.  Cacao  is 
grown,  and  tobacco  is  an  important  crop,  because  of  its  excellent 
quality.  Some  cotton  is  raised,  but  not  enough  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  local  mills.  The  forest  products  include  cedar,  oak, 
walnut,  ebony,  rosewood  and  mahogany.  Sisal  hemp,  or  henequin, 
is  grown  extensively  in  Yucatan,  and  is  exported  in  large  quan- 
tities. The  northern  part  of  the  country  and  the  high  plateaus  are 
well  adapted  to  grazing,  and  quite  a  number  of  cattle  and  sheep 
are  raised  in  these  regions. 

The  mineral  resources  are  of  the  greatest  importance.  Mexico 
is  the  leading  silver-producing  country,  her  output  being  about 
one-third  the  world's  supply.  Considerable  gold,  mercury,  iron, 
copper,  lead  and  tin  are  also  obtained.  In  most  places  the  crudest 
methods  of  mining  prevail,  but  capitalists  from  the  United  States 
have  become  interested  in  some  of  the  leading  mines  and  introduced 
modern  methods.  Building  stone  of  excellent  quality  is  abundant, 
and  the  Mexican  onyx  is  highly  prized  for  finishing  interiors. 
Coal,  asphalt  and  petroleum  have  been  found,  but  have  not  been 
worked  to  any  extent. 

The  inhabitants  are  Spaniards,  Indians  and  a 

nnaoita  is  miXed  race,  descendants  from  the  intermarriage 
of  the  other  two.  The  population  numbers  about  12,000,000. 
The  Indians  and  Mexicans  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  mining. 
There  are  but  few  manufactures,  and  these  are  either  under  the 
control  of  the  Spaniards  or  Americans  who  have  recently  estab- 
lished them.     Spanish  is  the  prevailing  language. 

The  United  States,  Germany  and  Great  Britain 
Commerce       take  mogt  of  the  foreign  tra(je>     Qur  siliire  js  not 

as  large  as  that  of  the  European  countries.  We  import  rubber, 
coffee,  gold  and  mining  products,  and  export  cotton  goods,  boots 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  285 

and  shoes,  machinery,  hardware  and  tools,  scientific  apparatus, 
carriages  and  railway  appliances.  Our  exports  amount  to  about 
$149,000,000  a  year,  and  our  imports  about  $G5,000,000.  Un- 
doubtedly the  difference  in  language  is  one  of  the  principal  barriers 
to  an  increased  commerce  with  the  Mexican.-,  as  it  is  much  more 
convenient  for  a  people  to  trade  with  those  with  whom  they  can 
converse  freely. 

_  .  All   the   important   cities   are   connected   by 

Transportation  .,  ,  ,  ,  .         .  ,  .   ..    ■ 

railway  and   telegraph,  and  two  trunk  lines 

connect  the  country  with  the  United  States.  The  Tehuantepec 
Railway  is  the  most  important  trunk  line  and  connects  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Oceans.  It  is  under  the  management  of  English 
capitalists,  and  until  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  will  con- 
tinue to  be  of  great  importance  in  shortening  the  trade  route  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports.  There  is  a  good  coastwise 
trade  on  the  Gulf.  The  leading  ports  are  Tampico  and  Vera  ( !ruz. 
Mazatlan,  Acapulco,  San  Bias  and  Manzenillo  are  the  important 
ports  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Acapulco  has  an  excellent  harbor,  but 
on  account  of  lack  of  railway  connection  its  trade  is  quite  .small. 
Mexico,  the  capital,  is  situated  in  the  interior  on  a  plateau  7000 
feel  i»i  altitude,  and  is  a  modern  American  city. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

This  is  a  narrow  mountainous  stretch  of  country  reaching  from 
Mexico  to  Panama.  It  comprises  five  small  individual  states; 
Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicaragau,  Costa  Rica  and 
the  British  Colony  of  Balize,  sometimes  called  British  Honduras. 
The  entire  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  New  England  and 
Middle  States. 

The  country  is  low  and  unhealthful  on  the  Caribbean  ('oast, 
but  more  elevated  along  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  elevated  regions 
are  comparatively  healthful,  and  most  of  the  people  live  among  the 


286  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

highlands.  The  climate  and  products  are  wholly  tropical.  The 
inhabitants  are  Spaniards,  native  Indians,  negroes  and  the  descend- 
ants from  these  races.  Most  of  the  interior  is  unsettled.  The 
people  lack  ambition,  and  industries  and  commerce  languish. 
Agriculture  and  lumbering  are  the  only  industries  practised,  and 
these  are  carried  on  in  a  very  primitive  manner.  The  prospect  of 
an  Isthmian  Canal  across  Nicaragua  for  a  time  gave  that  state  some 
political  prominence,  but  that,  with  the  canal,  has  now  passed  to 
Panama. 

The  commerce  of  these  states  is  limited  because  they  are  un- 
developed and  also  on  account  of  the  lack  of  transportation  facili- 
ties A  railroad  extends  across  Costa  Rica,  from  Port  Limon  to 
Puenta  Arenas,  which  has  an  excellent  harbor,  but  aside  from  this 
there  are  no  railways  in  the  states,  nor  even  carriage  roads  that  are 
passable.  Coffee,  hides,  mahogany  and  tropical  fruits  are  the  only 
exports  of  importance.  About  one-half  of  the  fruit  trade  is  with 
the  United  States.  We  send  them  cotton  goods,  tools,  hardware, 
flour  and  wine.  Their  entire  trade  with  the  United  States  amounts 
to  about  $16,700,000,  of  which  $9,500,000  are  exports  and 
$7,700,000  imports. 

QUESTIONS. 

How  do  you  account  for  the  great  variety  of  products  that  can  be  pro- 
duced in  Mexico? 

Why  are  the  industries  and  resources  of  the  country  so  poorly 
developed  ? 

What  railway  connection  does  Mexico  have  with  the  United  States  ? 

With  what  countries  does  Mexico  carry  on  most  of  her  foreign 
commerce  ? 

Why  is  the  commerce  of  the  Central  American  States  so  insignificant  ? 


POSITION  AND 


Chapter  III. 
SOUTH  AMERICA. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  extreme  points 
South  America  extends  from  the  tenth  parallel 
SURFACE  of  north  latitude  to  the  fiftieth  parallel  of  south 

latitude.  Nearly  all  of  the  continent  is  in  the  Torrid  or  South 
Temperate  Zones  and  its  latitude  would  give  it  a  tropical  or  a  semi- 
tropical  climate,  but  in  the  western  part  this  is  greatly  modified  by 
the  mountains. 

In  its  general  plan  the  surface  of  South  America  resembles 
that  of  North  America,  the  great  Andean  Mountain  system  extend- 
ing the  entire  length  of  the  continent  on  the  western  side.  The 
average  height  of  these  mountains  is  greater  than  that  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  ranges  are  nearer  together,  and  the  intervening 
plateaus  are  narrow.  The  Andes  are  nearer  to  the  coast  than  even 
the  Coast  Ranges  in  North  America,  and  their  western  descent  is 
very  steep,  consequently  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Pacific  are  few, 
small  and  rapid,  and  are  of  little  or  no  aid  to  commerce.  The 
eastern  slope  is  long  and  more  gradual,  merging  into  the  great 
plains  that  extend  to  the  Atlantic  Coast. 

The  eastern  highlands  are  divided  into  two  groups,  the  Guiana 
Highlands  between  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco,  and  the  Brazilian 
Highlands  south  of  the  Amazon.  Both  groups  consist  of  old  moun- 
tains that  have  been  worn  down,  so  that  their  rounded  summits  re- 
semble those  of  the  Appalachians. 

The  Guiana  Highland  is  loftiest  in  the  wot,  where  the  high- 
est summits  have  an  altitude  of  8000  feet  or  more.  These  descend 
by  terraced  slopes,  forming  on  the  north  one  side  of  the  Orinoco 

287 


288  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

basin,  while  the  other  side  is  formed  by  the  southern  and  eastern 
slope  of  the  Andes. 

The  Brazilian  Highland  reaches  its  greatest  altitude  near  the 
tropic,  where  it  is  8500  feet,  with  an  average  of  from  4000  to 
5000  feet.  The  region  is  characterized  by  a  large  number  of 
ranges  of  high  hills  and  low  mountains  that  have  been  worn  down, 
the  material  thus  removed  forming  the  plateau   at  their  base. 

The  great  Basin  of  the  Amazon  lies  between  the  Guiana  High- 
land  on  the  north  and  the  Brazilian  Highland  on  the  south,  and  ex- 
tends westward  to  the  base  of  the  Andes.  The  southern  boundary 
is  formed  by  a  low,  irregular  divide  which  separates  the  tributaries 
flowing  into  the  Parana  and  the  Plate.  The  tributaries  of  the 
Amazon  from  the  south  are  all  large,  and  nearly  all  have  falls  at 
about  the  middle  of  their  course,  which  obstruct  navigation. 

The  basin  of  the  Plate  is  long  and  narrow,  and  consists  of  the 
lowlands  formed  by  the  flood  plains  about  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
and  the  highlands  surrounding  this  region  of  lowland  and  extend- 
ing westward  to  the  Andes.  The  Amazon  and  Plate  with  their 
tributaries  form  an  extensive  system  of  waterways  that  are  of  the 
greatest  value  to  the  region  through  which  they  flow. 

Most  of  South  America  has  a  tropical  climate,  with 

Climate  twQ  seasonSi  ^he  rainy  and  the  dry.  The  great  alti- 
tude gives  those  portions  of  the  plateau  between  their  northern  ex- 
tremity and  the  vicinity  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  a  temperate 
climate;  while  some  of  the  highest  peaks  are  capped  with  snow. 
Most  of  this  portion  of  the  plateau  is  also  arid. 

The  Guiana  Highland  and  the  Orinoco  basin  have  a  warm  tem- 
perate climate,  and  the  highest  temperature  is  reached  during  the 
northern  summer,  when  the  heat  is  so  intense  that  the  people  for- 
sake the  lowlands  for  the  mountains.  An  abundance  of  rain  falls 
during  the  rainy  season. 

The  basin  of  the  Amazon  is  characterized  by  intense  heat  and 


Copyright,  1906,  by  lieoigThorue-Thomsen 

RELIEF  MAP  — SOl'TH   AMERICA 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  289 

heavy  rainfall.  These  conditions  account  for  the  dense  forests  of 
the  Amazon  valley  and  other  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  region. 
The  basin  of  the  Plate  has  a  tropical  and  sub-tropical  climate, 
with  plenty  of  rain  until  the  extreme  southern  portion  is  reached. 
Here  arid  conditions  are  found,  but  there  is  sufficient  moisture  to 
afford  excellent  grazing  regions.  The  southern  portion  of  the 
continent  has  a  temperate  climate. 

Brazil  was  settled  by  the  Portuguese,  but  all  of 

The  PeoDle 

F  the  other  South  American  States  are  of  Spanish 

origin.  Portuguese  is  the  language  of  Brazil,  and  Spanish  that  of 
the  other  countries.  Aside  from  these  two  nationalities  there  are 
but  few  white  people  on  the  continent.  These  arc  mostly  Germans 
and  Englishmen.  Indians  make  up  a  large  part  of  the  population. 
There  is  also  a  third  class  which  comprises  the  descendants  of  the 
native  races  mixed  with  the  Spaniards.  In  the  tropical  regions  the 
people  lack  ambition  and  enterprise,  but  the  inhabitants  of  Chile 
and  Argentina  are  energetic  and  progressive. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Guianas,  which  are, 
Government  respectively,  British,  French  and  Dutch  colo- 
nies, all  of  the  South  American  States  have  a  republican  form  of 
government,  patterned  quite  closely  after  that  of  the  United  States. 
Ever  since  these  countries  became  independent  they  have  been 
disturbed  by  political  strife  and  frequent  revolutions,  and  these 
conditions  have  prevented  the  development  of  their  resources  or 
the  establishment  of  any  important  industries.  The  eastern  coun- 
tries occupying  the  lowlands  are  much  more  important  commer- 
cially and  industrially  than  the  others.  Most  of  the  foreign  trade 
is  carried  on  with  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany  and  the  United 
States,  the  countries  ranking  in  importance  in  the  order  named. 
From  an  industrial  point  of  view  these  countries  can  best  be 
divided  into  two  groups:  the  Andean  countries  and  the  countries 
of  the  lowlands. 


290 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

THE  ANDEAN  COUNTRIES. 


PANAMA 


Panama  is  the  most  northerly  country  of  South 
America,  and  the  most  recently  formed  republic  of 
the  world.  It  is  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  land,  co-extensive  with  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  Its  length  is  about  460  miles,  and  its  width 
varies  from  thirty-one  to  seventy  miles.     In  area  it  is  about  equal 


THE  HARBOR,   PANAMA 

to  the  State  of  Maine.  The  surface  is  high  and  rocky  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  low  and  marshy  on  the  Caribbean  coast.  The 
climate  is  tropical,  damp  and  unhealthful  to  all  save  the  native 
people.  The  population  is  composed  chiefly  of  mixed  races  which 
have  descended  from  Spanish,  Indian  and  negro  origin,  and  there 
are  but  few  white  people  in  the  country.  There  are  no  manufac- 
tures, and  the  commerce,  as  far  as  the  country  itself  is  concerned, 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


291 


is  of  no  importance.  Panama,  the  capital,  is  the  Pacific  terminus 
of  the  Panama  Railway,  and  has  a  population  of  about  25,000. 
It  is  the  financial  and  commercial  center  of  the  country.  The 
only  other  town  worthy  of  mention  is  Colon  at  the  Caribbean  ter- 
minus of  the  railway.  This  has  a  population  of  about  3000,  and 
at  present  is  of  considerable  importance  on  account  of  its  relation 
to  the  Panama  Canal. 


PANAMA.  AND  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Panama  was  originally  a  state  of  Colombia,  and  revolted  and 
declared  its  independence  in  1903,  because  the  Colombian  govern- 
ment refused  to  ratify  the  treaty  with  the  United  States  providing 
for  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  revolution  wras  en- 
tirely peaceable,  and  the  new  government  received  the  official 
recognition  and  the  moral  support  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
leading  countries  of  Europe  soon  followed  our  example.  The  de- 
sired treaty,  which  the  Colombian  government  rejected,  was  rati- 
fied between  Panama  and  the  United  States,  and  the  canal,  which 


292  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

has  already  been  described  (see  page  30),  is  now  in  the  process 
of  construction.  The  completion  of  this  canal  will  give  this  small 
republic  one  of  the  most  important  waterways  of  the  world. 

The  United  States  of  Colombia  occupies  the  extreme 
northwestern  portion  of  the  continent.  It  has  an 
area  of  a  little  over  480,000  square  miles,  and  the  population  is 
about  three  and  one-third  millions.  On  account  of  the  various  alti- 
tudes, a  country  like  Colombia  has  three  climatic  zones  :  the  tropi- 
cal region  of  the  lower  altitudes,  the  temperate  of  the  medium  and 
the  cool  of  the  high  altitudes.  The  east  coast  is  low  and  unhealth- 
ful.  It  is  valuable  for  grazing  purposes,  and  large  numbers  of 
cattle  and  sheep  are  raised.  The  plains  and  the  mountains  produce 
wheat,  domestic  animals  and  some  other  agricultural  products 
common  to  temperate  regions.  The  tropical  products  are  coffee, 
cacao,  tobacco,  vegetable  ivory,  copaiba,  tolu  and  rubber,  all  of 
which  are  gathered  by  the  Indians.  The  mountains  contain  large 
deposits  of  gold  and  silver,  and  valuable  salt  mines  are  worked 
near  Bogota.  These  are  a  government  monopoly,  and  considerable 
revenue  is  derived  from  them. 

Transportation  facilities  are  very  poor.  There  are  a  few  short 
lines  of  railway  extending  from  the  coast  towns  inland,  but  the 
interior  is  entirely  lacking  in  carriage  roads,  and  goods  are  trans- 
ported by  pack  trains.  The  Magdalena  and  its  tributaries  are 
navigable  for  600  miles  to  La  Dorado,  and  steamers  can  ascend 
the  Orinoco  as  far  as  Cabugaro,  which  is  within  about  200  miles  of 
Bogota.  Bogota,  the  capital,  and  Medellin  are  the  only  two  cities 
of  any  importance,  and  they  are  so  situated  that  commercial  rela- 
tions between  them  are  practically  impossible.  Barrinquilla  and 
Sabanilla,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena,  are  the  ports  through 
which  most  of  the  foreign  trade  is  carried  on.  This  is  of  but  little 
importance.  The  country  exports  hides,  tallow,  tobacco,  and 
copaiba  and  tolu  to  the  United  States  ;   and  gold  and  silver  ore  to 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY  293 

Great  Britain.  The  imports  consist  of  textiles  and  other  manufac- 
tures, most  of  which  are  obtained  from  Great  Britain,  while  from  the 
United  States  the  country  receives  its  supply  of  oils  and  petroleum. 
Ecuador  is  a  little  smaller  than  New  Mexico  and  has 
a  population  of  about  2,500,000,  most  of  whom  arc 
Indians.  The  exports  are  cacao,  coffee,  sugar,  Peruvian  bark, 
ivory,  nuts  and  rubber.  Cacao  constitutes  about  three-fourths 
of  the  exports.  The  land  is  held  in  large  estates  and  the  labor- 
ing people  are  in  a  condition  bordering  on  slavery.  The  most 
important  article  of  manufacture  is  Panama  hats.  These  are 
made  from  torquilla  straw,  which  is  the  midrib  of  the  leaf  of  the 
screw  pine.  The  work  is  done  almost  wholly  by  Indians,  and 
because  dampness  is  essential  to  success  most  of  the  hats  are 
made  at  night. 

The  imports  are  food  stuffs  and  manufactured  textiles.  The 
country  has  extensive  mineral  deposits,  which,  undoubtedly,  are 
rich,  but  they  have  not  yet  been  developed.  The  copper,  gold 
and  silver  mines  are  worked  to  a  limited  extent.  Transportation 
is  exceedingly  poor.  Most  of  the  goods  are  carried  on  pack 
animals".  A  carriage  road  extends  from  Quito,  the  capital,  to 
Guayaquil,  the  leading  seaport,  a  distance  of  115  miles.  Most  of 
the  foreign  trade  is  with  France  and  Great  Britain.  That  with  the 
United  States  amounts  to  about  $1,000,000  a  year. 

Peru  is  situated  south  of  Ecuador,  and  lies  almost  wholly 

PERU 

among   the   mountains,  with  a  long  desert   sea  coast  on 

the  Pacific.  Peru  has  an  area  of  from  650,000  to  695,000  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  about  14,1510,000,  more  than  one- 
half  of  whom  are  native  Indians.  Most  of  the  country  has  a 
high  altitude  and  a  cool  temperate  climate.  In  the  northern  part, 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  mountains  is  heavily  timbered.  As  a 
whole,  the  country  has  but  little  rainfall.  The  leading  agricultural 
products  are  cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  cacao  and  tobacco,      The  other 


294  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

products  are  cinchona,   from  which  quinine   is   made  ;    cacao  and 

other  medicinal  plants,  dye  stuffs  and  rubber.     The  country  has 

considerable   good    grazing    land   and  many   sheep.     Llamas   and 

cattle  are  raised;  from  these  wool,  alpaca  and  hides  are  exported. 

Peru  is  rich  in  minerals,  and  mining  is  the  leading  industry. 

Gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc  and  mercury  compose  the  metals, 

and    coal,    salt,    borax,    sulphur    and    petroleum    the     non-metals 

which  are   exported.     The   manufactures   are  straw  hats,  woolen 

fabrics,  sugar,  candles,  soap,  shoes  and  a  few  other  small  articles. 

All  manufacturing  is  on  a  small  scale  and  in  a  crude  state.     Its 

purpose  is  to  supply  the   local   demand  only.     The   country  lacks 

capital,  and  means   of  transportation  are   still   poor.     There   arc 

about  1000  miles  of  railway  in  operation.     The  Amazon  and  its 

tributaries  afford  good  water  routes  for  the  eastern  portion  of  the 

country,  and  this  is  of  great  advantage,  as  most  of  the  trade  is  on 

the  eastern  side  of  the  mountains.     Lima,  the  capital,  and  Callao, 

the    principal    seaport,  are    connected   by  railway.     Most   of  the 

foreign  trade  is  with  Great  Britain  and  France,  the  United  States 

having  only  a  small  portion.      The  country  also  has  considerable 

trade  with  the  surrounding  South  American  States. 

Bolivia,  has  an  area  of  over    700,000    square    miles, 
BOLIVIA 

being  nearly  equal  to  California,  Colorado,  Arizona, 

New  Mexico  and  Texas.  The  population  is  only  two  and  a 
half  million.  Bolivia  is  wholly  an  inland  country,  and  its  only 
outlet  to  the  sea  is  through  one  of  the  surrounding  states. 
The  country  is  rich  in  resources,  but  in  a  very  backward  con- 
dition. Agriculture  is  the  most  important  industry,  and  the  chief 
crops  are  coffee,  rubber  and  sugar.  Cereals  and  vegetables  are 
grown  on  the  tablelands,  and  cattle,  sheep  and  llamas  are  raised  in 
large  numbers.  The  lowlands  and  plains  are  fertile,  and  many  of 
them  contain  dense  forests,  from  which  cinchona  bark  and  other 
valuable  medicinal  products  and  dye  stuffs  are  obtained. 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  295 

Transportation  is  exceedingly  poor.  The  plains  afford  good 
location  for  highways  leading  down  the  eastern  slope.  A  railway 
has  recently  been  completed  which  connects  the  country  with  the 
railway  in  Argentina,  and  Lopaz,  the  chief  city,  is  also  connected 
with  the  seaport  of  Antofagasta  in  Chile.  Sucre  is  the  capital 
and  city  next  in  importance.  Most  of  the  trade  is  with  the  sur- 
rounding states.  The  exports  arc  coffee,  rubber,  cacao,  copper, 
silver  and  tin,  and  the  imports  are  manufactured  clothing,  textiles, 
food  stuffs,  hardware  and  spirituous  liquors. 

Chile  is  the  most  important  Mountain  State.     Jt  is  a  long, 

CHILE 

^  narrow  country,  having    an    area  equal  to  that  of  the 

Pacific  States  and  Ohio,  and  extends  from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer 
southward  for  a  distance  of  nearly  three  thousand  miles.  Though 
having  but  a  small  proportion  of  fertile  land  this  is  so  well  culti- 
vated that  the  country  produces  abundant  crops  of  wheat,  barley, 
and  various  other  food  stuffs  of  the  temperate  regions,  and  fruits 
are  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the  home  market  and 
also  to  furnish  exports  for  the  neighboring  states  of  Bolivia,  Peru 
and  Ecuador.  A  sreat  deal  of  the  cultivated  land  is  under  irrisja- 
tion.  The  uplands  furnish  excellent  grazing  and  large  numbers  of 
sheep  and  cattle  are  raised.  These  furnish  merino  wool  and  hides 
and  leather  for  export. 

The  mineral  resources  are  by  far  the  most  important,  although 
the  northern  part  of  the  country  is  a  desert.  It  contains  extensive 
deposits  of  nitrate,  or  Chile  saltpetre,  which  occurs  in  the  form  of 
a  soft  crystalline  rock  that  is  mined  and  exported  to  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  where  it  is  ground  and  used  as  a  fertilizer,  and 
in  the  manufacture  of  certain  chemical  products.  The  next  most 
valuable  mineral  product  is  copper,  nearly  all  of  which  is  exported 
to  Great  Britain.  Coal  is  mined  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
country,  but  since  it  is  not  of  suitable  quality  for  smelting  pur- 
poses considerable  is  imported  from  Australia. 


296  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

The  country  is  well  supplied  with  railways,  most  of  which  are 
built  and  operated  by  the  government.  Santiago  is  the  capital 
and  Valparaiso  is  the  chief  seaport,  and  also  the  business  and 
financial  center  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America.  Most  of 
the  forwarding  trade  at  this  point  is  carried  on  by  German  and 
British  merchants.  A  railway  has  recently  been  completed,  ex^ 
tending  from  this  port  to  Buenos  Ayres.  This  is  destined  to 
become  a  very  important  trans-continental  line,  since  it  saves 
transporting  goods  around  Cape  Horn.  The  other  important 
towns  are  Concepcion,  Talca,  Chilian,  Iquique  and  Copiapo.  The 
foreign  trade  is  controlled  by  Great  Britain,  which  has  about  two- 
thirds  of  it ;  Germany  and  France  have  most  of  the  remainder. 
The  United  States  supplies  the  country  with  a  portion  of  its  textiles, 
and  also  with  lumber  from  Oregon  and  Washington,  and  with 
petroleum.     Our  imports  are  principally  nitrate. 

THE   LOWLAND    COUNTRIES. 

Venezuela  is  the  most  northerly  country  border- 
VENEZUELA    .       Qn  the  At]antic.     jn  area  jt  ;s  a  iittle  lar? 

than  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  Oklahoma  combined. 
The  population  is  about  two  and  one-half  million,  about  one-seventh 
of  which  are  Indians.  The  country  has  a  tropical  climate,  and  is 
unhealthful  except  in  the  mountainous  regions.  The  lowlands  have 
a  tropical  vegetation,  but  the  higher  altitudes  pioduce  the  plants 
of  the  temperate  zone.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture, 
grazing  and  the  gathering  of  forest  products.  Coffee  is  the  most 
important  crop,  and  about  200,000  acres  are  devoted  to  its 
cultivation.  Cacao  and  sugar  are  grown  in  the  lowlands,  and 
cereals  in  the  mountainous  districts.  The  llanos  are  great  plains 
covered  with  grass,  which  furnish  pasturage  for  herds  of  cattle, 
sheep,  horses,  goats  and  swine.  The  mineral  resources  are  im- 
portant,    and    consist    of    gold,     silver,     copper,    iron,    sulphur, 


Commerce  and  industry  2y? 

petroleum,   asphalt,    coal,    salt  and  kaolin,   from   which   porcelain 
is  made. 

Asphalt  is  a  mineral  pitch,  or  solid  form  of  bitumen,  and  is 
derived  from  sources  similar  to  those  from  which  coal  and  petroleum 
have  been  formed.  The  lake  on  Trinidad  is  from  eighteen  to 
seventy-eight  feet  in  depth,  and  is  estimated  to  contain  6,000,000 
tons. 

A  large  lake  of  asphalt  on  the  Island  of  Trinidad  is  under  the 
management  of  American  companies.  Numerous  large  pools  of 
this  mineral  are  also  found  along  the  neighboring  coast.  It  is  ex- 
tensively exported,  and  used  in  asphalt  pavements. 

The  country  is  poorly  equipped  with  roads,  and  there  are  only 
500  miles  of  railway  consisting  of  certain  short  lines  that  extend 
from  the  agricultural  districts  to  ports  on  the  Caribbean.'  Nearly 
all  goods  are  transported  by  pack  animals,  except  in  the  region  of 
the  Orinoco,  which  furnishes  a  good  waterway  for  that  portion  of 
the  interior  through  which  it  flows.  Caracas,  the  capital,  and 
Valentia  on  the  Caribbean,  are  the  most  important  cities  and  are 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  and  productive  agricultural  dis- 
trict. Maracaibo,  Puerto  and  Cabello  are  the  principal  seaports. 
The  country  lacks  capital,  and  frequent  uprisings  and  revolutions 
have  nearly  ruined  its  industries. 

The  foreign  trade  is  with  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  Germany  and  Spain.  We  furnish  the  Venezuelans  with 
one-fourth  of  their  imports,  consisting  of  cotton  fabrics,  ironware, 
flour  and  canned  goods;  and  receive  from  them  coflee,  hides, 
rubber  and  asphalt. 

Guiana  is  divided  into  three  colonies  known  respect- 
ively   as  British,   French  and  Dutch    Guiana;    these 
constitute  the  only  colonial  possessions  in  South  America.     In  area 
the   country  is   about  equal  to  California  and     Maine.  Ftillv 

one-half  of  the   territory   belongs  to   Great  Britain,  and  the   re- 


298  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

mainder  is  about  equally  divided  between  France  and  Holland. 
The  climate  is  tropical,  and  unhealthful  along  the  coast.  Only 
small  tracts  of  land  are  under  cultivation,  and  these  consist  of 
narrow  strips  along  the  coast  region  which  are  protected  by  dykes. 
Sugar-cane  is  the  chief  agricultural  product  but  the  manufacture  of 
beet  sugar  in  the  northern  countries  has  greatly  crippled  the  sugar 
industry  in  this  part  of  the  world.  The  country  is  rich  in  gold  and 
diamonds,  but  the  mines  have  not  been  extensively  worked. 
Georgetown  in  British  Guiana,  Cayenne  in  French  Guiana,  and 
Parimaribo  in  Dutch  Guiana,  are  the  capitals  of  the  colonies  and 
the  principal  towns.  The  leading  exports  are  sugar,  cacao,  coffee, 
molasses  and  rum  ;  and  the  imports  are  manufactured  articles  and 
food  products.  The  principal  trade  is  that  with  the  mother  coun- 
tries, the  United  States  having  a  small  portion  of  it.  Compared 
with  the  commerce  of  other  countries  that  of  Guiana  is  unimportant. 

The  Republic  of  Brazil  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  United 
BRAZIL  . 

States  including  Alaska,  and  occupies  about  one-half 

of  the  continent.  It  extends  from  the  fifth  parallel  of  north  lati- 
tude to  the  thirty-third  parallel  of  south  latitude.  The  Equator 
crosses  the  northern  part  and  with  the  exception  of  the  ex- 
treme southern  portion,  which  is  in  the  temperate  zone,  the 
country  has  a  tropical  climate.  The  population  is  variously 
estimated  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  millions.  It  consists  of  Portu- 
guese, negroes,  native  Indians  and  mixed  races  that  have  de- 
scended from  these,  together  with  a  few  Europeans  and  Americans. 
The  country  is  naturally  divided  into  three  productive  districts  ; 
the  Amazon  Basin,  the  Middle  Coast  Region  and  the  Southern 
Coast  Region.     Most  of  the  interior  is  still  a  vast  wilderness. 

The  Amazon  Basin  includes  more  than  half  the  country,  and 
supports  the  most  dense  and  extensive  tropical  forests  in  the 
world.  At  present  the  great  product  of  the  forest  is  rubber,  of 
which  it  supplies   nearly  one-half  of  the   world's   crop.     This  is 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


29'.) 


gathered  by  the  Indians,  who  live  in  a  halt*  civilized  state,  and 
whose  crude  methods  have  greatly  damaged  many  of  the  rubber 
trees.  The  Amazon  crop  also  includes  much  of  that  gathered  from 
the  neighboring  states.  Most  of  it  is  shipped  from  Para,  which  is 
the  greatest  rubber  port  in  the  world.  These  forests  also  contain 
an   inexhaustible  supply  of  hard    and  soft   woods  suitable  for  all 


^*^;: 


•>V>  £ 


&*•■ 


Ylh.W    ON    A    idl'lKK    PLANTATION 


sorts  of  cabinet  and  building  purposes,  but  the  time  for  developing 
the  lumbering  industry  is  not  yet  ripe. 

The  leading  products  of  the  middle  coast  region  are. cotton 
and  sugar-cane,  and  of  the  southern  coast  region  and  interior, 
coffee.  Rice,  black  beans  and  manioc  are  the  most  important  food 
products;  yams,  sweet  potatoes,  tropical  fruits  and  maize  are 
also   grown.      Brazil    nuts    grow   wild,  and    are    exported   in   large 


BRANCH  OF  A  COFFEE  TREE,  SHOWING  FLOWERS  AND  FRUIT 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


301 


quantities.     These   nuts  grow   in   large  spherical  pods,  containing 
24  each.     The    pods    are    broken    open    and    the    nuts    separated 
before  placing  them  on  the  market. 

Coffee  is  the  mosl   important  agricultural  product,  and   Brazil 

produces  more  than  one-half  of  t he  world's  supply.  It  is  the  seed 
of  an  evergreen  shrub,  which,  when  growing  freely,  reaches  a 
height  of  from  10  to  20  feet.  Under  cultivation,  the  tree  is  kept 
cut  d«>wn  to  7  or  8  feet,  and  the  branches  bend  down  nearly  to  the 


DRYING  COFFEE 

ground.  The  leaves  are  about  5  inches  long,  slender,  and  have  a 
bright  green,  glossy  surface.  The  flowers  appear  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaves,  and  are  small  and  pure  white.  The  fruit  is  a  two- 
celled  berry,  of  about  the  size  and  appearance  of  a  cherry  : 
when  ripe,  it  is  of  a  dark  red  color.  Each  cell  contains  a  seed 
which  forms  the  coffee  nib  or  bean.  The  orchards  are  kept  well 
tilled  and  free  from  weeds.  When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  cloths  are 
spread    under   the  trees   and    they    are    shaken,    which    causes   the 


302  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

berries  to  fall.  The  berries  are  dried  on  mats  in  the  open  air,  then 
crushed  between  rollers  to  free  the  seeds  from  the  husk.  After  a 
second  drying  in  the  sun,  the  seeds  arc  winnowed,  then  packed  in 
sacks  ready  for  shipping.  The  average  yield  is  about  a  pound  to 
a  tree,  but  the  best  trees  often  yield  three  or  four  pounds. 

The  great  mineral  region  extends  along  the  Bolivian  border 
to  Matto  Grosso,  and  eastward  to  the  Rio  Grande  du  Sul.  Gold, 
silver,  diamonds,  and  other  precious  stones,  are  found  in  this 
region.  Before  the  discovery  of  the  diamond  mines  in  South 
Africa,  those  of  Brazil  were  the  richest  in  the  world.  Iron,  copper 
and  coal  are  also  found  in  paying  quantities,  but  they  have  not 
been  worked. 

Manufactures  are  still  in  a  primitive  state,  but  foreign  capital, 
principally  from  German}^  is  invading  the  country  and  establishing 
new  industries.  The  resources  of  Brazil  are  more  extensive  than 
those  of  any  other  South  American  country,  and  these  establish- 
ments will,  undoubtedly,  continue  to  increase  in  size  and  number. 

The  Amazon  and  Parana,  with  their  tributaries,  furnish  a 
series  of  waterways  leading  to  all  ports  of  the  interior.  These 
rivers  are  of  the  greatest  commercial  importance,  since  without 
them  it  would  be  impossible  to  transport  the  rubber  and  other 
forest  products  to  the  coast.  The  roads  are  generally  poor,  but 
there  are  about  15,000  miles  of  railway  in  operation,  consisting 
principally  of  short  lines  extending  from  the  plateau  to  the  nearest 
seaport.  Most  of  the  railways  are  owned  by  the  government,  and 
leased  to  private  corporations.  Rio  Janeiro  is  the  largest  railway 
center. 

The  transportation  facilities  are  still  entirely  inadequate  to  the 
demands  made  upon  them,  and  with  the  extension  of  railway  lines 
and  the  construction  of  good  roads,  the  interior  of  the  country 
could  be  profitably  developed,  and  this  would  lead  to  great  increase 
in  production.     Rio  Janeiro  is  the  capital  and  commerial  center. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  303 

It  is  the  largest  coffee  market  in  the  world,  and  is  the  second 
largest  city  of  the  continent,  having  a  population  of  about  750,000. 

It  has  an  excellent  harbor  and  steamer  connections  with  the  lead- 
ing ports  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Para,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Amazon,  has  an  extensive  trade  in  rubber.  Pernambuco  is 
an  important  sugar,  coffee  and  cotton  market.  Porte  Allegre  is 
the  seaport  for  the  German  colonists,  and  Bahia  has  a  large  trade 
in  cotton,  sugar  and  tobacco. 

The  annual  foreign  commerce  amounts  to  about  $300,000,000, 
and  it  is  divided  between  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  the 
United  States  and  a  few  other  countries.  The  leading  export  is 
coffee,  which  is  by  far  the  most  important  product  of  the  country, 
and  the  one  from  which  the  greatest  amount  of  revenue  is  derived. 
The  annual  export  is  about  600,000,000  pounds  and  nearly  the 
entire  crop  is  taken  by  the  United  States.  Rubber  is  second  in 
importance,  and  in  the  production  of  this,  Brazil  also  leads  the 
world.  Other  exports  are  hides,  tallow,  cotton  and  Brazil  nuts. 
The  trade  with  the  United  States  is  increasing  from  year  to  year. 
We  import  from  Brazil  about  $80,000,000  worth  of  coffee  and 
rubber,  and  export  to  that  country  about  $11,000,000  worth  of 
flour,  cotton  goods,  machinery,  hardware,  iron  and  steel  goods  and 
petroleum.  There  are  regular  lines  of  steamers  plying  between 
the  United  States  and  the  most  important  Brazilian  ports. 

Argentina,  or  the  Argentine   Republic,  occupies 
ARGENTINA      th(i   southern  hulf  of  lh(l  eastern  part  0f  goutj, 

America.  It  is  about  one-half  the  size  of  the  United  States,  and 
has  a  population  of  about  4,000,000.  A  small  section  in  the 
northern  part  has  a  tropical  climate,  but  with  this  exception  the  en- 
tire country  lies  within  the  south  temperate  zone.  The  plains  in 
the  north  have  a  tropical  climate  and  vegetation  ;  those  of  the 
the  central  portions  have  a  warm  and  temperate  climate,  while 
the  plains  of  the  south  have  a  colder  climate.     The  mountainous 


304:  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

region,  which  extends  along  the  entire  western  part  of  the  country, 
is  cooler  than  other  portions  in  the  same  latitude.  The  climate 
varies  here  with  the  altitude  and  the  season  of  the  year.  Argen- 
tina is  almost  entirely  one  vast  fertile  plain,  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  stock  raising  and  growing  cereals.  It  has  become 
one  of  the  largest  wool  producing  countries  of  the  world,  and  is 
now  competing  in  the  markets  of  Europe,  with  Russia  and  the 
United  States,  in  the  sale  of  wheat  and  dressed  meat.  The  annual 
yield  of  wheat  is  now  about  100,000,000  bushels,  and  over  two- 
thirds  of  it  is  exported.  Flax,  corn  and  sugar-cane  are  also 
successfully  grown,  as  are  various  kinds  of  fruits  suitable  to  the 
temperate  and  semi-tropical  latitudes.  Grape  culture  and  the 
manufacture  of  wine  are  also  becoming  important  industries. 

The  country  is  well  supplied  with  minerals.  Gold,  silver  and 
copper  ores  are  abundant  in  the  mountain  districts  and  gold  is  also 
found  along  the  coast  as  far  south  as  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Coal, 
principally  lignite,  petroleum,  sulphur,  borax,  nitrates,  salt  and 
iron  are  found  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  profitably  mined.  The 
foot  hills  and  lower  portions  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  ex- 
tensive forests  that  yield  timber  and  other  valuable  products. 

Manufacturing  is  not  extensive.  What  there  is  consists  of  the 
manufacture  of  flour  and  wine  and  in  distilling  and  brewing.  Nearly 
all  of  the  manufactured  products  are  imported.  Argentina  is  better 
supplied  with  railways  than  the  other  South  American  countries,  and 
the  system  is  being  continually  extended.  The  recent  completion 
of  the  transcontinental  railway,  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Valparaiso 
in  Chile,  is  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  enterprises  of  the 
entire  continent,  and  is  destined  to  be  of  great  value  to  the  Repub- 
lic. Buenos  Ayres,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Plate,  is  the  capital, 
and  financial  and  commercial  center.  It  is  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant city  of  South  America.  In  its  buildings,  its  streets  and  its 
public  utilities  it  is  a  thoroughly  modern  city,  and  far  ip  advance 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  30a 

of  any  other  city  of  the  continent.  It  has  a  large  trade  with 
European  countries,  and  the  United  Stales.  Other  important 
cities  are  Rosario,  Santa  Fe,  Parana  and  Cordova,  each  of  which 
has  a  good  market  for  the  surrounding  farming  regions. 

The  country  has  a  growing  and  valuable  foreign  trade.  The  most 
important  exports  are:  wool,  hides,  skins,  corn,  preserved  meats, 
domestic  animals,  flax,  tallow  and  fat  and  wheat.  Mutton  is 
frozen  and  exported  to  Europe  in  refrigerator  ships,  while  beef  is 
jerked,  or  dried,  and  exported  in  this  form.  The  import-  are  agri- 
cultural implements,  textiles,  hoots  and  shoes  and  clothing.  The 
trade  is  carried  on  with  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Belgium, 
United  States  and  Italy.  The  exports  to  this  country  are  confined 
almost  entirely  to  cattle  products  and  wool,  while  we  send  to  them 
agricultural  implements,  iron  and  steel  goods,  oils,  cotton  goods 
and  wood  and  its  manufactures.  Our  exports  amount  to  a  little 
over  $8,000,000  per  year.  The  rivalry  of  the  European  countries 
for  this  trade  is  detrimental  to  the  commercial  interests  of  the 
United  States  and  Argentina. 

Argentina  is  the  most  progressive  of  the  South  American  coun- 
tries. It  has  ample  resources,  a  fertile  soil  and  a  temperate 
climate.  Its  inhabitants  are  energetic  and  progressive,  and  the 
government  is  stable  and  well  disposed  towards  all  lines  of  indus- 
try. During  the  last  few  years  a  large  number  of  immigrants  from 
Southern  Europe  have  entered  the  country.  With  the  addition  of 
necessary  capital  to  develop  its  resources,  this  Republic  is  in  a  fair 
way  to  become  a  strong  rival  of  the  United  States  in  the  markets 
of  Europe,  since  it  will  be  able  to  export  large  quantities  of  wheal 
and  other  food  products. 

Uruguay  is  a  small  country  situated  on  the  opposite 

URUGUAY       .//tl       P1  .     f  '       ..  ..   .        ", 

side  ot   the    1  late    Irom  Argentina.      It   has   a    large 

foreign  population,   and  is   in  excellent    financial    condition       The 

principal   industry  is  Btock    raising,  and   much   attention  has   been 


306  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

given  to  improved  breeding,  by  the  introduction  of  European  stock. 
The  scientific  methods  pursued  have  made  this  little  state  one  of  the 
foremost  cattle  and  sheep  countries  of  the  world.  The  value  of 
the  animal  products  exported  is  about  $40,000,000  a  year.  The 
soil  is  fertile ;  wheat  and  other  cereals  are  raised,  and  some 
wheat  is  exported.  Montevideo  is  the  capital  and  most  important 
city.  The  exports  go  to  France  and  Argentina,  and  most  of  the 
imports  are  textiles  and  machinery,  which  are  supplied  by  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States. 

Paraguay  is  a  small  interior  state  to  the  north  of 
Argentina.  Most  of  its  surface  is  covered  with 
dense  forests.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  is  suitable  for 
the  growth  of  wheat  and  other  cereals,  but  owin»-  to  the  lack  of 
transportation  facilities,  scarcely  any  of  the  resources  have  been 
developed.  Sugar  and  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  are  the  only  crops 
exported  and  these  are  of  but  little  value.  Asuncion  is  the 
capital  and  chief  city. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  effect  do  the  Andes  have  upon  the  products  and  industries  of 
South  America? 

What  interests  do  the  United  States  hold  in  Panama?  What  is  the 
present  condition  of  the  Panama  Canal? 

Why  do  the  Andean  countries  have  so  little  commerce  ? 

What  conditions  have  made  Chile  the  most  prominent  of  these  coun- 
tries ? 

Which  of  the  South  American  countries  the  most  closely  resembles 
the  United  States  in  climate  and  products?  In  what  does  this  country 
compete  with  the  United  States  in  the  markets  of  the  world? 

With  what  South  American  country  do  we  have  the  largest  trade? 
Why?  Why  do  European  countries  have  a  larger  trade  than  the  United 
States  with  South  America  ? 

What  has  caused  the  United  States  to  take  so  much  interest  in 
Venezuelan  affairs? 

How  do  you  account  for  the  lack  of  manufactures  in  South  America? 


Chaptee    [V . 
THE    WEST    [NDIES. 

Cuba  and  Hayti  have  independent  governments,  the  latter 
being  divided  into  the  states  of  Hayti  and  San  Domingo,  but  all 
the  other  islands  are  colonies  of  Jpurope. 

Cuba,  the  largest  of  the  West  Indies,  has  a  length  of 
CUBA  760  mjieSj  all(|  a  breadth  ranging  from  25  to  130  miles. 
In  area  it  is  about  equal  to  Pennsylvania,  and  has  a  population 
of  about  one  and  a  half  millions,  nearly  equally  divided  between 
whites  and  negroes.  Most  of  the  whites  are  Spaniards,  and 
Spanish  is  the  language  of  the  island. 

The  surface  is  divided  into  three  distinct  areas  ;  the  mountainous 
region  occupying  the  eastern  part,  a  central  plain  with  scattered 
hills,  and  the  mountainous  region  in  the  western  part,  which  has  a 
mountain  axis  whose  slopes  descend  to  the  valleys.  The  coast  i- 
irregular  and  furnishes  numerous  good  harbors.  There  are  a  num- 
her  of  rivers  on  the  island,  but  they  are  short  and  of  but  little 
commercial  value.      The  soil  is  fertile,  and  rainfall  is  abundant. 

Agriculture    is    the    leading    industry,  and   sugar 

°  constitutes  the  principal  crop,  Cuba   leading  the 

world  in  the  out-put  of  cane-sugar.  The  next  crop  in  impor- 
tance is  tobacco,  which  is  grown  with  a  greater  margin  of  profit  than 
sugar,  and  is  exported  in  large  quantities.  Cuban  tobacco  is  of  the 
best  quality,  and  commands  the  highest  prices  in  all  markets.  For 
this  reason  tobacco  from  other  countries  is  frequently  shipped  to 
the  island  and  reshipped  as  the  Cuban  product. 

The  forests  contain  a  large  quantity  of  valu- 

Other  Resources        , ,     +-    ,  ^  • 

able  timber,  and  iron   ore,   copper,   manga- 

307 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  309 

nese,  asphalt  and  salt  arc  found  in  sufficient  quantities  to  admit  of 
profitable  working.  Considerable,  iron  ore  is  now  mined  and 
shipped  to  the  United  States  since  it  is  especially  valuable  in  the 
manufacture  of  steed. 

Manufactures   are   limited   almost   entirely  to 

Manufactures        •  ,    . ,  ,  ,. .   , 

cigars  and  other  products  01  tobacco. 

The  oppressive  Spanish  rule  and  the  war  for  independence 
destroyed  most  of  the  plantations  and  ruined  all  the  industries, 
hut  with  the  aid  of  this  country  a  new  beginning  has  been  made. 
An  independent  government,  republican  in  form,  was  organized  in 
1902,  with  Tomas  Estrada  Palma  as  president,  but  after  four  years 
the  United  States  was  obliged  to  intervene  and  settle  internal 
strife.  The  foreign  relations  of  the  Republic  are  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  United  States.  Provisions  for  paying  up  the 
national  debt  have  been  made,  a  good  system  of  schools,  estab- 
lished while  under  the  control  of  the  United  States,  is  maintained, 
and  railways  and  highways  are  being  extended. 

Havana,  the  capital  and  chief  city,  is  situated  on  the 
north  coast,  and  is  a  convenient  port  of  call  for  vessels 
crossing  the  Atlantic.  It  is  the  commercial  and  financial  center  <>f 
the  "West  Indies,  the  largest  sugar  market  in  the  world,  and  the 
third  city  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  in  foreign  commerce.  Its 
population  is  235,000.  The  other  important  cities  are  Cardenas 
and  Matanzas  on  the  northern  coast,  and  Santiago  de  Cuba  and 
Cinfuegos  on  the  southern  coast.  All  these  are  connected  with 
Havana  by  railway  and  telegraph  and  Havana  has  cable  connection 
with  the  United  States. 

Nearlv   all   the    foreign    trade    is    with    the    United 

Commerce     ...   .   *      Q  ,  , ,  ...        ,,         •     •     , 

Mates.      Sugar  and  tobacco  constitute  the  principal 

exports,  but  others  of  sonic  importance   are    iron  ore.  honey,  wax, 

hides   and   rum.      The   trade    with   the    United    States    amounts    to 

about    $84,000,000    a    year,    of    which     $61,000,000    is    exports, 


310  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

and  the  balance   imports,   consisting  of   agricultural   implements, 

cotton  goods,  boots  and  shoes,  hardware,  machinery  and  vehicles. 

This  island  is  divided  between  the  negro  re- 
SAN  DOMINGO  ir         ,  „     ,.         ,    c        T.  s     „. 

pubbcs    ol    Hayti    and    San    Domingo.      The 

former  has  been  fairly  prosperous,  but  rebellions  and  revolutions 
in  the  latter  have  completely  destroyed  all  industries  and  hindered 
civilization.  In  1906  the  financial  affairs  were  placed  under  con- 
trol of  the  United  States  until  the  foreign  debt  is  paid. 

The  most  valuable  of  the  other  islands  are 

OTHER  ISLANDS       T        .  i  +i      -r  i  u  *,    i    , 

Jamaica  and  the  Bahamas,  both  belonging 

to  Great  Britain.      To  the  eastward  of  these  lie  the  small  group  of 

the  Danish  West  Indies  and  the  Virginian  group  ;   the   Leeward 

Islands,    the   French   Islands  of  Gaudeloupe  and  Martinique  ;   the 

Windward  Islands,  including  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent  and  Grenada  ; 

and  the  Barbadoes.      All  raise  pineapples  and  other  tropical  fruits, 

and  have  more  or  less  trade  with  the  United  States,  but  the  larger 

part    of  the   trade    is   with    the   respective   home    countries.      The 

Danish   Islands  occupy   a  strong  strategic   point   and  for    several 

years  the  United  States  has  been  negotiating  for  their  purchase. 

Kingston  on  Jamaica  is,  next  to  Havana,  the  most  important  city 

of  the  West  Indies. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  commercial  advantages  does  Cuba  have  over  the  other  West 
Indies  ? 

What  are  the  most  important  products  of  Jamaica? 
Why  have  Hayti  and  San  Domingo  such  a  limited  trade? 
How  has  annexation  to  the  United  States  helped  Porto  Rico? 


Chapter  V. 
THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 

The    United    Kingdom    embraces    England,    Scot- 
LOCATION     landj    Ireland    and    Wales.     The     British    Empire 

includes  the  United  Kingdom  and  all  of  her  colonies.  The 
area  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  about  121,000  square  miles,  or  a 
little  more  than  three  times  that  of  the  state  of  Ohio.  Its  popula- 
tion is  41,000,000,  or  about  half  that  of  the  United  States.  The 
area  of  the  British  Empire  extends  over  11,500,000  square  mile-, 
and  includes  one-fifth  of  the  land  area  and  nearly  one-fourth 
of  the  population  of  the  globe. 

The  important  political  divisions  of  the 
POLITICAL  DIVISIONS    Uniu,(,   Ki„„(|(i|ll  im, :   ,,ll^111,|    „,„,,, 

is  a  little  larger  than  New  York;  Wales,  about  the  size  of  New 
Jersey;  Scotland,  about  the  size  of  South  Carolina;  and  Ireland, 
which  is  but  little  smaller  than  Maine.  England  is  the  largest  and 
contains  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  the  Isles. 

The  location  of  the   British  Isles  is  extremely 

AGRICULTURE     ,  .  ,     e  ■     u  ,,  •        ■      „  f, 

favorable  for  agriculture.     Being    in    the    path 

of  the  warm  currents  and  warm  winds  of  the  North  Atlan- 
tic, they  have  a  temperate  climate,  with  an  abundance  of 
rainfall,  while  their  high  latitude  gives  them  long  days  dur- 
ing the  summer  season,  and  the  large  bodies  of  water  sur- 
rounding them  prevent  sudden  change's  of  temperature.  All 
these  conditions  arc  favorable  to  the  growing  of  crops.  In  the 
lowlands  the  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile  and  it  is  remarkably  well 
tilled.  Hay,  wheat  and  vcgetatables  are  the  leading  crops.  The 
yield  per  acre  in  each  is  about  double  that  secured   in   the  United 

311 


312  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

States.  Much  of  the  land  is  held  in  large  estates,  which  are 
divided  into  small  farms  that  are  kept  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation 
by  the  method  of  intensive  farming,  similar  to  that  used  by  the 
truck  gardeners  near  large  cities  in  the  United  States,  and  almost 
universally  practised.  On  the  highlands  and  among  the  mountains, 
cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  in  large  numbers,  sheep  being  of  special 
importance  in  Scotland. 

Through  years  of  careful  bleeding,  the  English  farmers  have 
attained  the  distinction  of  raising  the  finest  cattle  and  sheep  in 
the  world.  The  cattle  in  the  North  are  raised  especially  for  beef, 
while  those  in  the  South  are  adapted  to  daily  purposes.  Many 
of  these  breeds,  such  as  Durhams  or  Short  Horn,  the  Angus, 
the  Ayrshires,  Jerseys  and  Alderneys,  have  been  imported  to  the 
United  States,  where  they  have  supplanted  nearly  all  of  the  older 
and  less  valuable  breeds.  The  sheep  produce  the  best  quality  of 
coarse  and  medium  wool.  Some  portions  of  the  islands,  especially 
Ireland,  are  devoted  to  the  growing  of  flax. 

All  lines  of  agriculture  are  conducted  on  a  scientific  basis  and 
the  best  possible  results  are  obtained,  but  the  agricultural  products 
of  the  Kingdom  fall  far  short  of  supplying  the  needs  of  the  popula- 
tion and  large  quantities  of  food  stuffs  and  raw  material  have  to  be 
imported. 

The  fisheries   are  of  considerable   importance  and 

fisheries  occupy  a  good  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  living 
along  the  coast  in  the  northern  part  of  the  islands.  Large  quan- 
tities of  herring  are  salted  and  exported,  and  fish  of  every  variety 
supply  the  home  markets. 

The  abundance  of  iron  and  coal  in  England 

Mineral  Resources     adapts  that  COUntry  to  the  manufacture  of 

iron  and  steel  products.  Coal  is  found  all  the  way  from  Southern 
Scotland  to  the  Bristol  Channel  near  the  southern  coast.  Ex- 
tensive   deposits    of  iron  are  also    found    in   the  old   worn-down 


Commerce  and  industry  313 

mountains  adjacent  to  the  coal  fields.  Tin  and  copper  occur  in 
considerable  quantities,  but  the  manufacturing  industries  require, 
more  of  these  metals  than  can  be  supplied  from  the  home  mines,  and 
large  quantities  of  each  are  imported.  The  coal  suppy,  however, 
exceeds  the  home  demand,  and  some  coal  is  exported  to  the  other 
countries  of  Europe. 

The  peculiar  advantages  afforded  for  the  inanu- 

Manufactures      e    *  e  •  1    *.    1       1    n     *-  1  1 

tacture  ot  iron  and  steel  and  all  articles  made 

from  them,  have,  until  within  a  few  years,  enabled  England  to  lead 

the  world  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  goods.     The  damp 

climate  is  especially  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  textiles,  because 

most  fibers  are  more  successfully  worked  in  a    humid   atmosphere. 

These  conditions,  combined  with  the  intelligence  and  genius  of  the 

English  people,  have  for  many  years  made    England  one  of  the 

leading  manufacturing  countries  of  the  world. 

Four  inventions  which  have  revolutionized  the  leading  indus- 
tries of  the  world  are  due  to  the  ingenuity  of  Englishmen.  These 
are  the  power-loom  by  Edward  Cart w right,  the  steam  engine  by 
James  Watt,  the  locomotive  by  Stephenson  and  the  Bessemer 
process  of  the  making  of  steel  by  Sir  Henry  Bessemer.  Stephen- 
son was  not  the  original  inventor  of  the  locomotive,  but  he  was  the 
first  to  construct  a  practical  road  machine  of  this  sort,  and  for  this 
reason  he  is  considered  as  the  father  of  the  steam  railway. 

The  great  manufacturing  region  is  in  the  northern  and  western 
part  of  England.  In  the  northwestern  section  of  this  district,  the 
great  cotton  and  woolen  factories  are  found.  Manchester  leads  tin- 
world  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  and  Leeds  is  the  most 
important  center  in  the  woolen  industry.  England  manufactures 
more  textiles  than  any  other  country  ;  her  combined  textile  indus- 
tries give  employment  to  more  than  5,000,000  people,  and  the 
products  of  her  mills  are  found  in  all  countries  of  the  world. 

The  metal  industries  are  next  iu  importance  to  the  manufacture 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  315 

of  textiles.  In  these  iron  and  steel  lead.  Birmingham  is  the 
center  of  the  iron  industry  and  Sheffield  is  noted  for  its  cutlery  and 
tools.  The  abundance  of  iron  and  coal  has  also  made  ship- 
building an  important  occupation  and  some  of  the  largest  ship-yards 
in  the  world  are  found  at  Glasgow,  where  the  majority  of  steam- 
ships sailing  under  all  nags  except  the  American,  are  constructed. 
These  are  the  great  manufacturing  industries,  but  nearly  all  others, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  are  represented  in  the  English  work- 
shops, there  being  scarcely  an  article  in  use  among  civilised 
people  that  is  not  made  in  the  country.  For  many  years  Eng- 
land was  the  leading  manufacturing  country  of  the  world,  but  she 
is  now  surpassed  by  the  United  States. 

Except  in  the  northern  part  of  Scotland,  and  some  por- 
tions of  Ireland,  the  country  is  densely  populated.  In 
England  alone  there  are  thirteen  cities  each  having  a  population  of 
more  than  200,000.  To  this  number  must  be  added  Glasgow  and 
Edinburgh  in  Scotland,  and  Dublin  and  Belfast  in  Ireland.  Most 
of  the  cities  of  the  kingdom  own  their  public  utilities,  such  as  lights, 
water-works  and  street  railways,  and  have  attained  a  wide  reputa- 
tion for  the  excellent  management  and  sound  financial  condition  of 
these  enterprises. 

London,  the  capital,  is  the  financial  and  commercial  center  of 
the  Empire  and  of  the  world.  It  covers  an  area  of  t>23  square 
miles,  about  three-fourths  as  large  as  the  state  of  Rhode  Island,  and 
has  a  population  exceeding  four  and  a  half  million,  and,  including 
the  metropolitan  and  police  districts,  a  population  exceeding  six 
and  a  half  million,  or,  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  entire  state  of 
New  York.  The  city  has  grown  at  almost  the  head  of  tide-water 
of  the  Thames,  whose  broad  estuary  opens  towards  the  ieh  lands 
of  the  continent .  This  local  ion  gives  London  great  advantage  as 
a  "half  way  "  station  for  the  exchange  of  the  products  of  the  nation-, 
and    for   centuries    it    has   been   the    leading    market    of  the   world. 


CHEAPSU>E.  I.ONPON 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  317 

London  is  the  center  of  the  railway  systems  of  the  kingdom,  :is 
well  as  the  focal  point  of  many  ocean  routes,  but  the  largest  ocean 
liners  anchor  about  twenty  miles  down  the  river  on  account  of 
shallow  water. 

Liverpool  is  one  of  the  most  important  seaports  of  Europe. 
It  is  the  port  through  which  passes  nearly  all  the  trade  between  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States,  Canada  and  other  Ameri- 
can countries.  It  has  an  extensive  system  of  docks  and  is 
connected  with  Manchester  by  ship  canal.  The  Cunard  and  White 
Star  Steamship  lines  have  their  terminus  here.  Southampton  is 
also  an  important  port  for  American  trade.  Manchester  has  been 
made  a  seaport  by  the  construction  of  its  magnificent  ship  canal, 
which  admits  the  largest  vessels,  and  has  its  banks  lined  with 
wharves.  Glasgow  is  noted  for  its  great  ship-building  and  iron 
and  steel  industries,  and  Queenstown  is  the  port  of  call  tor  many 
trans-Atlantic  steamers. 

The  transportation   facilities   of  the    Kingdom 
^  are  not  surpassed   by  those  of  any  other  coun- 

try. Excellent  carriage  roads  extend  everywhere,  and  the  numer- 
ous railways  join  all  towns  with  important  centers  of  trade,  and 
these  with  the  great  commercial  and  industrial  centers.  The  rail- 
ways are  of  the  highest  order  of  excellence,  the  best  of  mail,  tele- 
graph and  telephone  services  are  also  maintained,  and  ocean  cables 
extend  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  British   Isles  are  situated   in  the  center  of  the 

Commerce     ,      ,  e  *\      \-    <i         , T      -     ,  ,. 

land  masses  ot  the  .Northern  Hemisphere.  Com- 
mercially, this  is  a  great  advantage.  Moreover,  their  small  area 
places  nearly  every  important  manufacturing  and  commercial  town 
within  50  miles  of  the  sea.  And,  in  addition  to  these  local  advan- 
tage-, the  British  Empire  has  colonies  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
with  each  of  which  most  favorable  trade  relations  are  sustained. 
These  conditions  Kave  made  the  United  Kingdom  the  greatest  com- 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


319 


mercial  and  carrying  nation  of  the  world.     The  British  merchant 

marine  far  exceeds  that  of  any  other  country.  It  has  nearly  three 
times  the  tonnage  of  the  merchant  marine  of  the  United  State-, 
and  more  than  live  times  that  of  any  other  European  nation.  Her 
merchant-ships  are  a  great  source,  of  wealth,  as  they  enable  her  to  do 
a  large  part  of  the  carrying  business  of  other  nations,  especially  the 
United  States,  and  from  this  carrying  trade  a  valuable  revenue  is  de- 
rived.     English  ships  are  found  in  every  important  port  of  the  world. 


HK*H  *£s       His  - 

"'*M  illtl  mm. 


FIRTH  OF  FORTH  BRID'GE 

Commerce  is  carried  on  with  nearly  all  nation.-,  hut  the 
United  States,  France,  Germany,  Netherlands,  Belgium  and 
Russia,  in  the  order  named,  have  the  largest  trade.  The  imports 
are  food  stuffs  and  raw  material  for  use  in  manufacturing.  For 
this  reason  (treat  Britain  has  for  many  years  been  a  free  trade 
country,  since,  to  place  duties  upon  such  imports  would  simply  in- 
crease the  cost  of  living,  and  cause  hardship  to  the  people. 


320  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

The  exports  are  manufactures  and  coal.  English  textiles  are 
found  in  all  lands  and  English  hardware,  cutlery  and  machinery  are 
exported  to  the  British  colonies  and  many  of  the  countries  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  In  addition  to  this,  innumerable  small  wares, 
such  as  scientific  instruments,  pens,  needles  and  pins  and  others 
that  in  the  aggregate  amount  to  a  large  sum,  are  sent  to  nearly  all 
countries  with  which  trade  relations  are  sustained.  The  whole 
amounts  to  about  two  and  a  half  billion  dollars,  one-fourth  of  which 
comes  from  the  colonies,  one-fifth  from  the  United  States,  about 
one-tenth  from  France  and  the  balance  from  other  countries. 

The  imports  from  the  United  States  are  wheat,  flour,  preserved 
meat,  beef  cattle,  cotton  and  electrical  machinery.  The  exports  to 
this  country  consist  of  textiles  and  other  manufactures.  The  annual 
trade  with  the  United  States  amounts  to  $716,333,333,  of  which 
about  $525,000,000  is  in  imports  from  this  country,  and  the  balance 
in  exports. 

QUESTIONS. 

In  what  lines  of  agriculture  does  England  excel?     Why? 

"What  made  England  for  a  long  time  the  leading  manufacturing  coun- 
try of  the  world? 

How  do  you  account  for  the  number  of  large  cities  in  England  and 
Scotland?     Why  is  the  northern  portion  of  Scotland  sparsely  populated? 

What  has  giveu  Loudon  its  prominence  as  a  financial  and  a  com- 
mercial center?  What  city  in  the  United  States  does  it  resemble  in  these 
respects  ? 

What  conditions  have  made  Liverpool  such  an  important  seaport? 

What  natural  advantages  have  aided  in  extending  the  commerce  of 
the  United  Kingdom? 

Why  is  such  a  large  proportion  of  the  foreign  commerce  carried  on 
with  the  United  States? 


Chapter  VI. 
THE    GERMAN   EMPIRE. 

The  German  Empire  is  the  most  centrally  located 

LOCATION  t 

country  of  Europe.     It  adjoins  Russia  on  the  east, 

Austria  and  Switzerland  on  the  douth,  France,  Belgium  and 
the  Netherlands  on  the  west  and  Denmark  on  the  north,  and  is 
within  a  day's  sail  of  the  British  Isles  and  the  Scandinavian 
Peninsulas.  Its  area  is  about  three-fourths  that  of  Texas,  and  its 
population  two-thirds  that  of  the  United  States.  In  the  south  the 
land  is  high  and  often  mountainous,  and  the  hill  country  prevails 
until  the  plains  of  Russia  are  reached.  These  occupy  the  entire 
northern  half  of  the  Empire.  The  country  has  a  temperate  climate 
and  an  abundant  rainfall.  The  people  are  vigorous,  industrious, 
highly  educated  and  employ  the  most  scientific  methods  in  all  their 
industries  and  occupations. 

Agriculture   is   second   in   importance  to   manu- 
gr    u  lu  factures  and  is  one   of  the    leading  industries, 

engaging  the  attention  of  two-fifths  of  the  people.  Though  in  many 
localities  the  soil  is  naturally  poor,  yet  owing  to  the  great  care 
taken  with  every  little  patch  of  ground  and  the  skill  with  which  the 
Germans  manage,  abundant  crops  are  raised.  In  the  southern  and 
central  parts  of  the  Empiie  rye,  hops,  grapes,  wheat,  barley  and 
tobacco  are  raised,  and  the  Rhine  Valley  is  one  of  the  largest  wine- 
producing  regions  in  the  world.  On  the  plains  of  Prussia,  sugar- 
beets,  rye,  oats  and  tobacco  are  raised.  The  sugar-beet  is  one  of 
the  most  important  crops  and  Germany  is  the  leading  country  in  the 
production  of  beet-sugar,  its  output  being  about  one-fourth  of 
the   world's   supply.      Potatoes  are   also  important.      But  none    of 

m 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  323 

these  crops  is  sufficient  to  supply  the  country  with  food  and  the 
balance  has  to  be  imported  Cattle  and  hogs  are  raised  in  some 
sections  and  whore  grazing  is  good,  dairy  products  arc  of  consider- 
able value. 

Forests  cover  one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  country,  and  yield 
a  good  supply  of  timber  and  other  useful  products.  All  forests  are 
under  government  supervision  and  their  wise  management  prevents 
waste  or  destruction.  A  tree  cannot  be  cut  unless  another  is 
planted,  so  that  the  supply  of  timber  does  not  diminish. 

Germany  is  rich  in  minerals.      Silver,  lead 

Mineral  Resources         i  ,.       i  •    ,. 

and  copper  ores  are  found  in  the  mountains 

of  Prussia,  extending  from  Aachen  on  the  west  to  upper  Silesia  on 
the  east.  Coal  and  iron  occur  in  the  Rhine  Highlands,  especially  in 
the  Ruhr  Valley  in  the  neighborhood  of  Aachen,  where  they  be- 
come continuous  with  the  coal  fields  of  Belgium.  Germany  pro- 
duces more  coal  and  iron  than  any  other  country  on  the  continent. 
She  also  leads  the  European  countries  in  her  output  of  silver. 
Zinc  occurs  in  large  quantities,  copper  is  mined  to  a  limited  extent 
and  most  of  the  lithograph  stone  comes  from  Bavaria. 

As  a  manufacturing  country  Germany  ranks 
third,  being  exceeded  by  the  United  States  and 
the  United  Kingdom.  Textiles  and  iron  and  steel  goods  are  the 
leading  products.  These  industries  are  principally  located  in  the 
iron  and  coal  regions  of  the  south  and  southwest.  At  Essen  are 
the  Krupp  Iron  Works,  which  are  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  the 
world.  Here  are  cast  most  of  the  large  cannon  for  Germany  and 
other  countries,  and  here  also  is  made  much  of  the  machinery  for 
the  largest  ocean  steamers;  other  heavy  iron  and  steel  work  i-^  also 
turned  out  in  abundance. 

The  Germans  are  skilful  in  the  manufacture  of  scientific  instru- 
ments and  supply  not  only  the  home  market,  hut  to  a  large  extent 
that  of  every  other  country.      They  also   excel   in   the   manufacture 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  325 

of  chemicals  used  in  the  arts.     Most  of  the  aniline  dyes,  much  <»t' 

the    perfumery    and    many    other    similar   compounds  come    from 

German  cities.     Large  quantities  of  beer  and  other  malt  liquors 

are  also  manufactured.      In  the  mountainous  regions  a  great  deal  of 

this  work  is  done  as  home  industries,  and  wood-carving  and  the 

manufacturing  of  wooden  toys  are  also   carried   on   in   a    similar 

manner.     The  German  workmen  are  all  thoroughly  trained  in  their 

arts  and  are  well  educated,  and  this  is  one  of  the  great  reasons  for 

the  Empire's  rapid  advance  in  manufacturing  industries  since  the 

Franco-Prussian  War. 

All   the  important   rivers  are  navigable,   and 
Transportation     ;u.e   connected    with    each    other   1>y   canais< 

Other  canals  also  connect  with  the  important  rivers  of  France, 
Russia  and  Austria-Hungary,  so  that  the  inland  water  trans- 
portation is  ample  and  cheap.  Railways  connect  all  towns  of 
importance,  and,  in  addition,  important  trunk  lines  lead  to  the 
prominent  trade  centers  of  all  surrounding  countries.  Over  32,- 
000  miles  of  railway  are  in  operation,  and  the  railway  system  of 
the  Empire  is  second  only  to  that  of  the  United  States.  The 
Baltic  and  the  North  Seas  have  700  miles  of  coast,  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal  (see  page  29)  across  the 
Peninsula  of  Sehleswig-Holstein  is  of  great  advantage  to  com- 
merce  on  the  Baltic,  since  it  saves  the  long  and  stormy  passage  *A' 
the  Straits  between  Denmark  and  Scandinavia.  The  merchant 
marine  is  one  of  the  besl  in  the  world  and  contains  some  of  the 
largest  and  finest  ships  afloat,  such  as  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  and  the 
Deulschland.  The  leading  steamship  lines  are  the  Hamburg- 
American  and  the  German  Lloyd. 

Berlin,  the  capital.  'm  one  of  the  few  cities  having  over  a 

million  inhabitants.      It  is  an  important  industrial  center 

and  the   leading  financial  center  of  the    Empire.      It  is  also  one  of 

the   most   important  financial  centers  of  the   world.      Many  of  the 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  327 

leading  railways  converge  here.  Hamburg,  at  the  mouth  of  tlio 
Elbe,  lias  extensive  docks,  and  is  the  mosl  important  seapoii  on 
the  continent.     It    receives  all  the   American  trade.      Dresden   is 

the  center  of  the  railway  system  of  Saxony,  and  also  has  -trainer 
connections  with  most  of  the  leading  ports  of  Europe.  It  is  like- 
wise an  important  manufacturing  center.  KOnigsberg  and  Danzig 
are  important  Baltic  ports.  Breslau  receives  mosl  of  the  raw 
material  of  Eastern  Europe.  Sett  in  and  Kiel  have  large  shipyards 
where  many  of  the  finest  German  ships  are  built. 

The  commerce  of  Germany  ranks  among  European 
Commerce  colintries  next  to  that  ()f  Great  Britain.  Her  excel- 
lent manufactures  find  a  market  in  all  civilized  countries,  and  her 
important  exports  consist  of  iron  and  steel  goods,  textiles,  chemi- 
cals, beet  sugar,  dye  stuffs,  wine  and  scientific  instruments.  The 
leading  imports  are  food  stuffs,  raw  material,  especially  cotton, 
wool  and  raw  silk.  Germany  is  a  heavy  purchaser  of  American 
cotton,  although  she  obtains  considerable  of  her  supply  from  other 
countries.  The  raw  silk  is  nearly  all  obtained  from  Italy.  Large 
quantities  of  her  textiles  go  to  South  American  countries  and  con- 
siderable wheat  is  imported  from  Argentina.  The  United  States. 
Austria-Hungary  and  Russia  are  also  important  sources  of  grain 
supply. 

The  annual  trade  with  foreign  countries  amounts  to  about 
12,500,000,000;  about  one-half  of  this  ia  with  Great  Britain  and 
United  States;  and  Russia,  the  South  American  State-.  Nether- 
lands, France  and  Belgium  are  the  other  leading  countries.  The 
annual  trade  with  the  United  States  is  about  *:'>  13,000,000.  The 
imports  from  this  country  exceed  the  exports  to  us  by  about 
$73,000,000.  We  obtain  from  Germany  chemicals,  woolens  and 
scientific  instruments,  and  .-end  her  dressed  meat,  boots  and  shoes, 
cotton  goods,  agricultural  machinery,  typewriter-  and  a  few  oilier 
manufactured  articles. 


328  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

QUESTIONS. 

How  does  the  German  Empire  compare  with  the  United  Kingdom  in 
area?     In  natural  resources? 

How  do  German  manufactures  compare  with  those  of  England  in 
kind  and  quality?  Along  what  lines  do  the  Germans  excel?  The 
English  ? 

In  what  lines  of  manufacture  does  Germany  compete  with  the  United 
States  ? 

Why  is  Germany  so  successful  in  securing  foreign  trade?  Could  hei 
plan  be  followed  with  profit  by  the  United  States? 

How  does  Hamburg  compare  with  Liverpool  as  a  seaport? 


Chapter  VII. 
FRANCE. 

Franco  is  south  of  the  British  Isles  and  southwest  of 
LUOAllUN    Germany.   On  the  northeast  it  adjoins  Belgium  and  m 

the  southeast  Italy.  Its  area  is  a  little  less  than  thai  of  ( rermauy,  and 
its  population  a  little  less  than  half  that  of  the  United  States.  The 
southern  and  eastern  portions  are  mountainous,  hut  the  northern 
and  northwestern  portions  are  quite  level,  forming  a  part  of  the 
great  plain  that  extends  along  the  western  coast  of  the  continent. 
All  the  rivers  have  their  source  in  the  mountains.  The  climate  is 
warm  temperate,  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  South  Atlantic  State-. 
The  country  has  a  fertile  soil,  hut  the  mineral  resources  are  com- 
paratively small. 

Four-fifths    of    the     land     is    divided    into    small 
Agriculture       famig   w,|irj)  occupy  one_nalf  of  the  inhabitants 

Though  smaller  than  Texas,  France  has  as  many  farms  as  the  United 
States.  They  average  in  size  from  fifteen  to  seventeen  acres  and 
are  cultivated  on  the  plan  of  intensive  farming,  as  in  England.  The 
most  scientific  methods  are  employed,  and  the  laud  is  in  the  highest 
state  of  fertility.  Wheat  i>  the  most  important  cereal  and  the  crop 
is  of  greater  value  than  those  of  all  the  other  cereals  combined. 
Oats  is  the  next  cereal  in  importance,  and  rye  and  barley  are  grown 
to  some  extent.  The  sugar-beet  is  the  most  valuable  agricultural 
product  and  is  raised  extensively  on  the  plains  in  the  north. 
France  has  over  ."><><i  sugar  factories  and  produces  about  833,000 
tons  of  sugar  annually.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  some  provinces,  and 
is  a  governinent  monopoly. 

France   is   the  leading  country  of  the  world   in  the  production 

329 


33()  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

of  grapes  and  wine  ;  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  southern  and  eastern 
portions  of  thfe  country  being  especially  adapted  to  this  industry, 
and  French  wines  are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Cham- 
pagne and  red  and  white  wines  are  the  principal  varieties  shipped. 
Grazing  is  the  most  important  industry  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
country  where  cattle-breeding  and  dairying  are  a  fruitful  source  of 
income  to  the  farmers.  Wool  of  excellent  quality  is  also  grown, 
and  France  is  the  original  home  of  the  Flemish  and  Percheron 
horses. 

The  fisheries  are  among  the  first  in  Europe  ;  large 
isneries  quantities  of  cod  are  taken,  and  oyster  culture  is  ex- 
tensive. Most  of  the  Atlantic  fisheries  are  around  the  mouth  of  the 
Gironde,  and  most  of  the  oyster  beds  are  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay  off 
St.  Malo  and  in  the  English  Channel.  French  oysters  are  inferior 
to  the  American  varieties,  but  they  find  ready  market  at  home. 

France  produces  considerable  coal,  but  not 
Mineral  Resources    enough  to  supply  her  demands.     Iron  ore 

is  also  mined  to  some  extent  on  the  German  frontier.  The  lead- 
ing iron  manufactories  are  Lille,  Nancy  and  St.  Etienne.  Salt 
mines  occur  near  Nancy,  and  large  quantities  are  also  obtained 
from  the  salt  marshes  along  the  Loire  and  Gironde. 

France  is  an  important  manufacturing  country  ; 
Manufactures  a]though,  in  amount,  her  manufactured  prod- 
ucts fall  far  short  of  those  of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain  or 
Germany,  she  excels  in  the  quality  of  her  goods.  Shops  and  fac- 
tories are  found  throughout  the  country,  but  the  most  extensive 
manufactories  of  iron  and  steel  are  in  the  north,  in  the  region  of  the 
coalfields.  The  manufacture  of  textiles  is  one  of  the  most  important 
industries,  and  occupies  over  a  million  people.  The  silk  industry 
centers  in  the  Rhone  valley,  and  Lyons  is  the  leading  silk  market 
and  the  largest  producer  of  silk  textiles  in  Europe.  The  silkworm 
has  been  cultivated  in  Southern  France  for  several  centuries,  but 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  ;;.;i 

nine-tenths  of  the  raw  material  is  imported  from  Italy,  China  and 
Japan.  Rouen  has  large  cotton  mills  and  Lille  and  Roubaix  are 
also  important  centers  of  this  industry.  Excellent  woolens  are 
made  at  Roubaix  and  Tuscany,  and  Rheims  and  Lyons  manufacture 

shawls.       French   woolens    arc    noted    Cor   their   fine   texture    and 

superior  quality.     Ribbons,  kid  gloves,  hats,  millinery,  perfumery 

and  numerous  small   wares,  for  the  making  of  which  the   French 

people  have  a  special  aptitude,  also  constitute  an  important  part  of 

the  manufactures. 

France    has    an    excellent    railway    system,    of 
Transportation      whi(.h  parig  js  fche  largest  ceuter.     Fl,,m  i1(,n, 

railways  extend  to  all  of  the  principal  industrial  and  commercial 
centers  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  and  important  lines 
extend  south  to  Lyons  and  Marseilles.  In  all,  there  are  about 
24,000  miles  of  railroad,  and  a  trunk  line  through  the  Mount 
Cenis  Tunnel  makes  direct  connection  with  Italy.  The  navigable 
rivers  have  been  canalized,  thereby  greatly  extending  their  mile- 
age. Canals  also  connect  these  rivers  with  each  other  and  with 
some  of  the  rivers  of  Germany,  forming  a  complete  and  extensive 
system  of  inland  waterways. 

Paris  is  the  largest  city  on  the  continent,  the  commercial 
Cities 

and  financial  center  of  the  country  and  the  focus  of  a 
vast  trade  with  surrounding  countries  as  well.  It  has  railway 
connections  with  all  the  important  cities  of  Europe,  and,  through 
the  Seine,  excellent  water  communication  with  Greal  Britain  and 
the  continental  seaports.  It  is  the  center  of  art  and  fashion  and 
has  become  the  great  center  for  the  distribution  of  luxuries  of  the 
civilized  world.  Paris  is  also  famous  for  its  manufacture  of 
women's  apparel,  kid  gloves,  perfumery,  porcelain  and  jewelry. 

Lille,  on  the  northern  plain,  is  an  important  textile  center 
Rouen  is  the  center  of  cotton  manufactures  and  Lyons  of  the  silk 
industry.     The  important    seaports  are   Marseilles,  .Yu  bonne  and 


332 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


Cette  on  the  Mediterranean,  Bordeaux  on  the  Atlantic,  and  Havre, 
which  is  the  seaport  of  Paris.  Rouen,  by  the  excavations  in  the 
Seine,  has  also  been  made  an  important  inland  seaport.  The 
importance  of  Marseilles  has  been  lessened  by  the  construction  of 
the  Mount  Cenis,  Saint  Gothard  and  other  tunnels  through  the 
Alps,  since  these  give  the  country  to  the  north  direct  railway 
connection  with  Genoa  and  other  Italian  cities. 


A  VIEW  ON  THE  SEINE,  PARIS 

Although  a  compact  country,  France  presents  a  meat  variety 
of  soil,  climate  and  productions.  The  natural  versatility  of  the 
French  people  enables  them  to  adapt  themselves  to  these  conditions 
in  a  manner  that  assures  success  in  whatever  they  attempt.  They 
are  full  of  life,  open-hearted  and  honest,  but  withal  energetic  and 
earnest  Neatness  and  thrift  characterize  their  eveiy  effort,  and 
in  France  a  larger  proportion  of  homes  is  owned  by  their  occu- 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 

pants,  than  in  any  other  country.  The  thrift  of  the  French  i-  also 
manifested  in  their  use  of  raw    material.      Nothing  is  wasted,  and 

■ 

what  is  often  rejected  by  other  nationalities  as  worthless  is  here 
worked  up  into  valuable  by-products.  The  country  baa  been 
burdened  time  and  again  by  heavy  debts,  vet  the  people  are  pros- 
perous, hopeful  and  happy. 

The  mot  important  articles  of  commerce  are  wool- 
Commerce  .11  1  ei    II  4.1 

ens,  silk  and  wine,  following  these  arc  numer- 
ous small  articles,  such  as  millinery,  perfumery,  porcelain  and 
scientific  instruments.  The  imports  consist  of  bread  stuffs,  raw- 
cotton,  raw  silk  and  wool.  The  greatest  trade  is  with  Greal 
Britain,  Belgium  standing  second,  Germany,  third,  and  the  United 
States,  fourth.  About  one-ninth  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  this 
country.  Tin1  total  value  of  the  foreign  commerce  is  about 
$1,325,000,000.  France  imports  from  the  United  States  goods  to 
the  amount  of  $77,500,000,  and  exports  to  us  merchandise  to  the 
value  of  sill  ,00(1, 000  ;  that  is,  she  receives  about  one-twentieth  of 
our  exports  and  supplies  us  with  one-eleventh  of  our  imports. 

The  colonial  possessions  of  France  exceed  the  entire  area  of 
the  United  States  and  her  possessions  by  more  than  a  million 
square  miles  and  contain  a  population  of  over  56,000,000,  and  they 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  considering  the  commerce  of  the 
nation.  The  most  important  colonies  from  a  commercial  point  of 
view  are  Algeria  and  French  Indo-China.  The  trade  with  Algeria 
amounts  to  about  SSO,000,000,  and  that  with  the  other  colonial 
possessions  to  about  $60,000,000  annually. 

^Yith  the  exception  of  Algeria  and  Guiana,  none  of  these 
colonies  is  at  all  developed,  hut  all  of  them  are  susceptible  of 
development,  and  some  of  them,  such  as  French  Kongo  and  Mad- 
agascar, contain  abundant  resources,  while  the  agricultural  possi- 
bilities in  all  are  of  importance  and  others  will  in  time  furnish 
opportunities  for  the  establishing  of  manufacturing  enterprise, . 


334  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  is  France  able»to  support  so  Large  a  population? 

How  do  her  methods  of  agriculture  compare  with  those  of  England? 

How  do  the  manufactures  of  France  compare  with  those  of  Germany 
as  to  kind,  amount  ami  quality? 

Why  is  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  foreign  trade  with  Great  Britain? 
Why  is  so  small  a  proportion  with  Germany? 

What  are  the  means  of  communication  with  the  countries  to  the 
south  ? 


Chapteb   VIII. 

BELGIUM,   NETHERLANDS,    DENMARK,    NORWAY 
AND    SWEDEN. 

Belgium,  Netherlands  and  Denmark  occupy  a  sec- 

LOCATION     ,.,.,,,.  ]•         i         xi  c 

tion  or  the  plains  extending  along  the  west  coast  of 

Europe,  and  a  portion  of  Belgium  and   Netherlands  is  below   sea 

level.     In  Netherlands,  considerable  of  this  land  has  been  reclaimed 

by  building  dykes  and  pumping  out  the  water  with  windmills.     <  hi 

the  low  sand-barrens  along  the  coast  of  Belgium,  a  similar  work 

has   been   done   by   planting  a  grass  that   holds  in   place  the   sand 

which  was  formerly  drifted  by  the  wind. 

Belgium  is  one  of  the  smallest,  most  populous  and 

BELGIUM  '  h  .  ..  .     '    ....  , 

most    enterprising    states    in    the     world.       With    an 

area  somewhat   less  than  that  of  Maryland,  the  country  supports  a 

population  of  more  than  (i, 250, 000.     The  southern  portion  is  high 

and    broken,   and   the    northern,    low    and    nearly    level.     Though 

naturally  unproductive,  by  skilful  tillage  and  the  use  of  fertilizers, 

the  soil  has   been   made  to   yield  abundant   harvests.      The   sandy 

places  along  the  coast  have  been  transformed  into  excellent  grazing 

lands  and  support  large  numbers  of  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  of  the 

best   breeds.      This  region  is  also  the  center  of  an  important    dairy 

industry.      Within  this  belt    is  one  of  more  fertile  soil,  on  which 

grains,  the  sugar-beet  and  flax   are   raised.      The  flax   crop  is  very 

important  since  the  fiber  is  of  the  best  quality  and  is  manufactured 

into  textiles  in  the  country. 

There  is  quite  an  extensive  coal  field   in  the  southern   part  of 

the    country,    and    deposits    of    iron    are    also    found    in    the    same 

locality.     Most  of  the  coal  mined  is  consumed   by  home  manufac- 

335 


336 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


tories,  but  a  little  is  exported  to  France.  Extensive  zinc  mines 
occur  in  Moresnet,  and  the  production  of  metals  and  ores  is  an 
important  industry.  The  southern  part  of  the  country  is  devoted 
to  manufactures  and  is  an  important  industrial  center.  The  manu- 
facture of  cotton,  woolen  and  linen  ffoods  and  lace  are  the  loading 


A  VIEW  ACROSS  THE  BASIN,   ANTWERP 

industries.  The  hand-made  lace  of  Belgium  is  famous  for  its  fine- 
ness and  beauty,  and  commands  a  high  price  in  all  civilized 
countries.  Porcelain,  art-tiles,  glassware  and  cheaper  grades  of 
all  crockery  are  also  made  in  large  quantities  in  the  coal  region. 
All  of  these  constitute  important  articles  of  export. 

Brussels,  the  capital,  is  the  most  important  city.     Antwerp' 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  337 

is  the  principal  port  and  one  of  the  chief  seaports  of  Europe. 
Verviers,  Liege  and  Seraing  arc  important  centers  of  the  metal 
industry.  Ghent  is  noted  for  its  Linens,  and  Mechlin  and  other 
towns  in  its  vicinity  for  laces.  The  country  i>  well  supplied  with 
railways  which  are  under  the  control  of  the  state.  The  Scheldt  is 
navigable  for  ocean  vessels  as  far  as  Antwerp,  and  is  also  con- 
nected by  canals  with  the  Rhine,  which  in  turn  is  connected  with 
the  rivers  of  France. 

Most  of  the  foreign  commerce  occupies  the  surrounding  Euro- 
pean countiies  and  the  United  States.  The  imports  are  food  stuffs, 
and  raw  materials  used  in  manufactures,  especially  cotton  and 
wool,  and  the  exports  are  manufactured  goods,  including  iron  and 
steel  goods,  /.inc.  textile-,  porcelain,  glassware  and  coal.  The 
greater  part  of  the  commerce  is  with  France,  followed  by  the 
United  States,  Germany  and  Great  Britain.  From  the  United 
States  Belgium  receives  wheat,  cotton,  corn  and  petroleum.  The 
amount  of  our  trade  is  about  $100,000,000  annually,  of  which 
$47,000,000  are  imports  and  the  balance  exports. 

A  large  part  of  the  Netherlands  is  the  delta  of 
NETHERLANDS      .,        ',  .  '        ,n  .  ..„,     ,  fl 

the  Khine.      1  he  country  is  a  little  larger  than 

Maryland,  and  has  a  population  of  about  5,000,000,  or  about 
equal  to  that  of  Canada.  Agriculture,  dairying  and  stock-raising 
are  the  most  important  industries.  The  soil  and  climate  make 
grazing  profitable,  and  the  country  is  celebrated  tor  its  excellent 
breeds  of  cattle,  horses  and  sheep.  Agriculture  takes  the  form  of 
truck-farming  and  the  growing  of  Mowers,  and  the  hutch  farmers 
supply  vegetables,  bulbs  and  cut  flowers  to  many  of  the  European 
cities. 

Manufacturing  is  next  in  importance  and  consists  of  the  mak- 
ing of  cotton,  woolen  and  linen  goods,  sugar,  chemicals,  agricul- 
tural implements,  metal  work,  brick  and  pottery.  Sandstone  is 
quarried,  and  iron  ore  and  coal  arc  mined  in  small  quantities. 


338  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

The  country  is  well  supplied  with  canals,  varying  in  size  from 
those  that  will  float  large  ships  to  mere  ditches.  These  connect 
with  the  navigable  rivers  and  with  each  other  and  furnish  a  com- 
plete system  of  waterways,  which  are  supplemented  by  a  railway 
system,  having  about  half  the  mileage  of  the  canals. 

Amsterdam  is  one  of  the  leading  financial  centers  of  Europe, 
but  the  carrying  trade  centers  about  Rotterdam,  which,  by 
improvement  of  its  canals  and  rivers,  has  been  transformed  into  a 
commodious  seaport.  Delft  has  a  world-wide  reputation  on 
account  of  the  pottery  made  there.  The  trade  is  principally  with 
the  surrounding  nations  and  the  Dutch  colonial  possessions. 
The  leading  exports  are  butter,  cheese,  sugar,  vegetables, 
flowers,  margarine  and  flax.  The  imports  are  food  stuffs,  raw 
materials  and  manufactures.  Most  of  the  exports  go  to  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  France  and  Belgium.  The  trade  with  the 
United  States  is  small,  amounting  to  about  $101,600,000  a  year, 
more  than  three-fourths  of  which  is  imports.  Like  England, 
Netherlands  has  for  centuries  been  a  jobbing  nation.  The  volume 
of  trade  handled  by  her  people  amounts  to  nearly  $1,500,000,000 
a  year.  The  Dutch  merchant  marine  is  large  for  the  nation,  well 
equipped  and  frequents  all  ports  of  the  world.  Much  of  the 
carrying  trade  is  done  for  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  whose  population 
and  commerce  exceed  in  value  those  of  the  mother  country. 

Denmark  occupies  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  and  a 
DENMARK      few  adjoining  isiancis.      rn  area  it  is  a  little  larger 

than  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  combined,  and 
its  population  is  about  two  and  one-fourth  millions,  which  is  a  little 
more  than  that  of  Chicago.  Agriculture  occupies  about  one-half 
of  the  people,  manufacturing  one-fourth,  and  fishing  and  trade  the 
remainder.  All  available  land  is  under  cultivation,  and  excellent 
crops  of  wheat  and  other  cereals  and  roots  are  raised.  Raising  live- 
stock and  dairying  are  also  important  industries.     In  the  quality  of 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  339 

her  butter,  Denmark  excels  all  other  countries.     Manufactures  are 

encouraged,  but  they  are  few  and  unimportant.     The  largesl  trade 

is  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany.     Theexports  are  butter,  eggs, 

lard  and  pork.     The  imports,  food-stuffs  and  manufactured  articles, 

principally  textiles  and  hardware.     ( !onsiderable  trade  i-  carried  on 

with  Iceland,   from   which   fish,    whale  and   seal   oil   are   imported. 

Copenhagen  is  the  capital  and  commercial  center. 

Norway     and    Sweden    occupy    the 
NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN       G        ,.'  ,,     .       .     ,,      l~         . 

Scandinavian  ren insula,  the  greatest 

part  of  which  is  a  plateau,   varying  from    1000    to    3000    feet  in 

altitude,  being  highest  at  the  South.     The  combined  area  of  these 

countries  is  298,000   square  miles,  of  which   125,000  belongs  to 

Norway,  and  173,000  to  Sweden.     Norway   is  a  little  larger  than 

New    Mexico,   and    Sweden    is   about    the    size    of   California    and 

Maryland  combined.     The  population  of  Norway  is  a  little  more 

than  2,250,000  and  that  of  Sweden  is  5,000,000. 

The  coast  of  Norway  is  indented  by  numerous  deep  fiords, 
many  forming  good  harbors.  The  southern  and  eastern  slopes  con- 
tain considerable  lowland  and  the  streams  are  small  and  rapid, 
affording  good  water-power,  but  being  of  little  assistance  to  navi- 
gation. One-half  of  Sweden,  and  over  one-fifth  of  Norway  are 
covered  with  forests.  Spruce,  fir  and  pine  predominate.  Their 
latitude  would  give  these  countries  an  extremely  cold  climate,  but 
under  the  influence  of  the  winds  from  the  Atlantic,  this  is  modified 
to  a  cool  temperate  over  most  of  the  peninsula. 

Until  1905  the  two  countries  were  under  one  government,  but 
maintained  separate  legislative  assemblies.  Their  industries  are 
common,  but  Norway,  being  the  more  mountainous,  gives  less 
attention  to  agriculture  than  Sweden.  The  leading  agricultural 
products  are  oats,  rye,  barley  and  potatoes.  Considerable  stock  is 
raised,  and  dairying  is  likewise'  important,  in  the  low  lands  of  the 
south.     Ores  of  copper,  silver,  lead,  iron  and  zinc  are   found,  and 


340  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

mining  is  an  important  industry  in  both  countries.  The  iron  is  of 
superior  quality,  and  is  exported  to  all  iron-manufacturing  coun- 
tries.    There  is  but  little  coal  on  the  peninsula. 

Manufacturing  industries  are  few.       The  most  important   is 
lumber  and  lumber  products,  the  Scandinavian  countries  being  the 


NORWEGIAN  FISHERMEN  DRYING  FISH 

largest  exporters  of  lumber  in  Europe.  Matches  and  wood  pulp 
are  made  and  exported  in  large  quantities.  Iron  manufactures 
are  second  in  importance.  The  manufacture  of  textiles  is  limited. 
The  trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  Denmark. 
Only  a  small  portion  of  the  trade  is  with  the  United  States.  The 
exports  are  lumber,  pig  iron,  dairy  products,  matches  and  wood 
pulp.     The  inhabitants  of  Norway  are  extensively  engaged  in  fish- 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  311 

ing,  and  export  cod  and  cod-liver  oil.  'Flic  imports  are  some 
food-stuffs  and  manufactured  goods,  principally  textiles  and 
machinery. 

The  leading  cities  are  all  seaports.  Christiania,  the  capital  of 
Norway,  is  at  the  head  of  the  Skager-Rack  :  Stavengar,  Bergen, 
Tromso  and  Hammerfest,  the  most  northerly  town  of  Europe,  are 
important  trade  centers  of  Norway.  Stockholm,  the  capital  of 
Sweden,  has  an  excellent  harbor  on  the  Baltic,  and  is  the  commer- 
cial and  financial  center  of  the  country.  Goteborg  and  Balmestad 
on  the  Cattegat  are  also  important  ports.  The  leading  cities  of 
both  countries  are  connected  by  railway,  there  being  about  7000 
miles  on  the  Peninsula. 

Scandinavians  are  excellent  sailors,  and  their  ships  are  found 
in  all  the  leading  ports  of  the  world,  and,  in  proportion  to  its  pop- 
ulation, Norway  has  the  largest  merchant  marine  of  any  nation. 
But  the  Scandinavians  do  not  confine  their  energies  solely  to 
developing  the  resources  of  their  own  country  and  carrying  goods 
for  other  peoples.  Thousands  of  them  have  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  and  other  countries,  where  they  have  taken  up  land 
and  become  successful  and  prosperous  farmers.  Still  others  have 
been  equally  successful  in  following  the  various  trades  and  pro- 
fessions in  the  land  of  their  adoption.  Wherever  found,  they  are 
sober,  energetic  and  industrious. 


342  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  does  Belgium  excel  as  a  manufacturing  instead  of  as  an  agricul- 
tural country? 

What  gives  Antwerp  its  importance  as  a  seaport? 

What  does  the  word  Netherlands  mean?  Why  is  the  name  appropri- 
ate to  the  country? 

In  what  respects  are  the  United  Kingdom  and  Netherlands  alike 
commercially? 

What  has  given  Holland  linens  their  wide  reputation? 

Why  does  the  United  States  import  iron  from  Sweden  ?  What  other 
articles  do  we  import  from  this  country  and  from  Norway? 

Why  are  there  so  few  large  cities  in  Norway  and  Sweden? 


Chapter  IX. 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY    AND    SWITZERLAND. 

The  combined  area  <>t'  Austria-Hungary  is 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY         ,..+1     ,        ,,        ,,    ,      ..  ,r  , '      '    , 

a  little  less   than  that   ot     Lexas,    while    its 

population  is  45,400,000,  or  more  than  half  that  of  the  United 
States.  Austria,  which  is  the  smaller  of  the  two  states,  is  moun- 
tainous, and  Hungary  consists  of  broad  grazing  plains,  or  steppes, 
which  are  a  continuation  of  those  of  Russia.  Austria  has  a  mild 
climate  with  abundant  rainfall,  but  the  climate  of  Hungary  is  sub- 
ject to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  the  rainfall  is  less  than  that 
of  Austria. 

Agriculture  is  most  extensively  practised  in  Ilun- 
Affriculture 

gary  ;  cereals  and  live-stock  are  the  leading  prod- 
ucts. The  climate  is  well  adapted  to  wheat,  and  large  quantities 
of  this  grain  of  excellent  quality  are  raised.  Most  modern  methods 
of  cultivation  and  improved  agricultural  machinery  and  imple- 
ments are  in  use  in  connection  with  this  industry.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  grapes  and  prunes  is  quite  extensive  in  the  highland  region 
of  Austria.  Large  quantities  of  sugar  beets  are  also  grown,  from 
which  sugar  for  export  is  manufactured. 

Forests  cover  a  little  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  area,  and 
yield  a  variety  of  good  timber  and  other  forest  products  of  con- 
siderable value. 

...  .        Coal   and  iron    abound  in  the   northwestern   part    of 

jyiinGPJils 

Austria,  but  not  in   close   proximity.      Salt    i>  mined 

in  the  Alpine  provinces  and  in  Transylvania.      Austria  is  also  one 

of  the  leading  countries  of  Europe  in   the   production  u\'  gold,  and 

some  silver  and  mercury  are  mined. 

343 


344  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

The  manufacturing  industries  center  around  the 
Manufactures  region  0f  Bohemia,  Moravia  and  Silesia,  where 
woolen,  linen  and  cotton  goods  are  made.  The  making  of  art- 
glassware,  in  which  the  Bohemians  excel,  is  an  industry  of  great 
importance  and  one  which  for  centuries  has  furnished  a  large 
revenue.  Porcelain  is  also  manufactured.  Sugar-refining  and  the 
manufacture  of  wheat-flour,  in  which  Austria-Hungary  rivals  the 
United  States,  are  among  the  important  industries.  The  present 
process  of  making  wheat-flour  by  roller  mills  originated  in 
Hungary. 

The  Danube   and  Elbe  are  the  great  natural 
Transportation     waterways    to    the    Bjack    and    Baitic    Seas> 

Canals    unite    these    rivers,  so    that   there  is  a  continuous   water 

passage  between  these  seas.     The  Ludwig  Canal  in  Germany  also 

connects  the    Danube   with  a   navigable  tributary  of  the  Rhine. 

There  are  23,000  miles  of  railway  in  operation,  most  of  which  is 

under  the  management  of  the  state.     Transportation  facilities  are 

fairly  good,   but  not  equal  to  those  of  the  United  Kingdom,   or 

of  France   and    Germany,  and    rates    are   so    high    as   to   cripple 

industries. 

„     Vienna,    the    capital    and    financial    center   of    Central 

CTTTFS 

Europe,  is  situated  on  the  Danube,  at  a  point  where  a 

series  of  passes  in  the  Carpathian  and  Alpine  Mountains  gives  it 
railway  connection  with  the  adjoining  countries,  Germany,  Swit- 
zerland and  Italy.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  financial  and 
industrial  centers  of  Europe.  Budapest  is  the  commercial  center 
of  Hungarian  trade.  Trieste  and  Fiume,  on  the  Adriatic,  are  the 
only  seaports. 

Most  of  the  trade  is  with  Germany,  Great  Britain 

Commerce     and  itaiv>  an(j  nearly  all  goods  are  transported  by 

railway  and  canal,  less  than  one-third  passing  through  the  seaports. 

The  exports  are  food  stuffs,  eggs,  barley,  malt,  woolens,  glassware, 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  345 

timber  and  wood-work.  The  imports  are  cotton,  wool,  silk  and 
agricultural  machinery.  The  United  States  buys  of  Austria- 
Hungary  glassware  and  porcelain,  and  sells  her  cotton  goods, 
pork,  agricultural  machinery  and  corn.  The  annual  trade  with 
this  country  is  about  $18,000,000,  of  which  $7,000,000  are  imports 
from  us,  and  the  remainder  exports. 

Switzerland  is  an  inland  mountainous  Country 

SWITZERLAND      .   .  ,    „         ..,.     +,       A1  T, 

lying    wholly    within   the    Alps.        Its   area   is 

about  twice  that  of  Massachusetts,  and  its  population  is  about 
3,500,000.  Seven-tenths  of  these  are  German,  and  less  than  one- 
fourth  of  them  French.  It  is  the  land  of  lofty  mountains,  deep 
vsileys  and  beautiful  lakes  and  is  famous  the  world  over  for  the 
beauty  and  grandeur  of  its  scenery.  The  valleys  are  fertile  and 
wheat  and  other  cereals  and  some  vegetables  are  raised,  but  the 
supply  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people.  The 
mountain  farmers  make  excellent  cheese,  sonic  of  which  is  exported. 

Switzerland  is  a  manufacturing  country,  and  most  of  its  indus- 
tries are  highly  specialized.  The  making  of  watches  is  the  leading 
industry.  Most  of  the  work  is  done  by  hand,  and,  until  the  advent 
of  the  American  machine-made  watch,  the  Swiss  watchmakers  sup- 
plied the  trade  for  many  countries.  Cotton  and  silk  fabrics,  and 
buttons  and  embroidery  are  also  made.  Many  of  the  Swiss  are 
skilled  in  engraving  on  wood,  and  produce  beautiful  and  val- 
uable specimens  of  art  work.  The  exports  are  manufactured 
goods,  and  some  condensed  milk.  The  largest  trade  is  with  Ger- 
many, followed  by  Great  Britain  and  France.  Trade  with  the 
United  States  is  inconsiderable.  The  Mount  Cenis,  Saint  Gothard 
and  the  Simplon  tunnels  are  of  great  advantage  to  the  country  be- 
cause they  have  made1  transportation  much  cheaper,  and  given 
direct  railway  connection  with  surrounding  states. 

Geneva,  at  the  head  of  the  Rhine,  is  the  chief  trade  center, 
and    is    noted     for     the    manufacture    of    watches.       Basel    is    the 


346  COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 

center    of  the    silk    industry,    and    Zurich    has    important    cotton 
factories. 

QUESTIONS. 

How  does  the  wheat  industry  of  Hungary  compare  in  extent  with 
that  of  the  United  States?  Which  country  excels  in  the  manufacture  of 
flour? 

What  has  given  Vienna  its  financial  and  commercial  importance? 
How  does  it  compare  in  wealth  and  influence  with  Berlin?  With  Paris? 
With  New  York? 

Why  does  Austria-Hungary  have  so  small  a  trade  with  the  United 
States? 

What  has  made  Switzerland  so  well  known  in  the  United  States?  id 
this  acquaintance  of  any  commercial  advantage  to  either  country? 


Chapter  X. 
SPAIN,    PORTUGAL    AND    ITALY. 

These   countries    occupy    the    Iberian    Peninsula. 
SPAIN    AND      „,.  .  * 

Jneir    surface    is    rouirh    and     mountainous,    and 

PORTUGAL  .,     ,,  r  t  n  i    <i 

with    the    exception    01    small    areas    around    the 

coast,  the  land  is  high.  The  climate  is  semi-tropical,  except 
In  the  highest  altitudes,  and  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient  for  exten- 
sive agriculture.  Spain  is  about  the  size  of  California  and  Ken- 
tucky, and  has  a  population  of  about  19,000,000,  while  Portugal 
is  a  little  smaller  than  Indiana  and  has  a  population  of  3,500,000. 
Though  politically  separate,  industrially  and  commercially  these 
countries  are  one. 

The  important  agricultural  products  are"  merino  wool,  which  is 
the  finest  in  the  world,  and  tropical  fruits,  including  raisins, 
grapes,  oranges,  lemons,  limes  and  olives,  all  of  which  are 
exported.  Wine  making  is  also  an  important  industry,  and  a 
large  share  of  the  supply  of  cork  comes  from  the  interior.  This 
is  obtained  from  the  bark  of  the  cork  oak,  which  grows  nearly 
a  foot  thick. 

There  are  good  supplies  of  minerals,  and  the  mines  have  been 
worked  for  centuries.  Silver,  iron  ore  and  coal  are  obtained  in 
paying  quantities,  and  about  one-half  of  the  world's  supply  of 
quicksilver  comes  from  the  mines  of  Almeda  in  Spain.  In  general. 
the  crudest  methods  are  followed  in  mining  and  the  reduction 
of  ores,  and  the  mineral  resources  are  only  partially  developed. 
Manufactures  are  too  limited  to  deserve  any  special  notic   . 

The  leading  exports  are  wine,  fruits,  iron  ore,  merino  wool  and 
Malaga  raisins,  from  Spain  ;  and  the  export  for  which    Portugal   is 

347 


348  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

the  most  celebrated  is  Port  wine,  which  obtains  its  name  from  the 
city  of  Oporto.  Barcelona  is  the  financial  and  commercial  center. 
Madrid  is  the  capital  of  Spain,  is  of  political  significance,  but  has 
no  commercial  or  financial  importance,  and  the  principal  fruit  poits 
are  Malaga,  Valentia  and  Cartegena. 

A  good  portion  of  Italy  is  formed  by  a  spur  of  the 
Alps  which  extends  into  the  Mediterranean,  and  is 
known  as  the  Apennine  Mountains.  In  area  the  country  is  about 
equal  to  Nevada,  and  it  has  a  population  of  about  32,400,000, 
or  more  than  one-third  that  of  the  United  States.  The  northern 
part  of  the  country  forms  the  southern  slope  of  the  Alps  which 
descend  to  the  Plains  of  Lombardy,  through  which  flows  the  Po. 
The  basin  of  this  river  is  alluvial  land  of  remarkable  fertility. 
The  Apennines  extend  through  the  central  part  of  the  Peninsula, 
and  slope  on  both  sides  to  the  sea.  Italy  has  the  same  latitude  as 
the  New  England  States,  but  its  climate  is  much  warmer  and 
somewhat  more  arid. 

Italy  has  at  all  times  been  distinctly  an  agricul- 
Agriculture     tural  countrv      The  great  Plain  of  Lombardy  is 

the  most  important  agricultural  district.  Its  ranges  of  latitude  and 
altitude  enable  the  country  to  produce  all  of  the  crops  of  the  tem- 
perate regions,  and  many  tropical  products  as  well,  and  the  seasons 
are  such  that  two,  and  even  three,  crops  can  be  obtained  during  the 
year.  "Wheat  is  the  most  important  cereal,  but  there  is  not  enough 
produced  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  population.  Corn  is  raised  in 
large  quantities,  and  rice  is  grown  in  the  irrigated  regions.  Olives 
constitute  the  most  important  of  the  agricultural  products,  and 
Italy  leads  the  world  in  their  production.  Olive  oil  is  extensively 
used  by  the  inhabitants  in  place  of  butter,  or  other  fats.  Large 
quantities  of  the  fruit  and  oil  are  also  exported.  Tropical  fruits, 
oranges,  lemons  and  grapes  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  Italy 
ranks  next  to  France  in  the  production  of  wine. 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  349 

The  most  important  single  industry  is  silk  culture,  in 
which  Italy  is  one  of  the  leading  countries  of  the  world,  ranking 
next  to  China  and  Japan.  The  industry  is  Located  principally 
in  the  northern  part,  where  the  mulberry  thrives  and  the  climate 
is  especially  suited  to  the  growth  of  silkworms. 

Notwithstanding  the  natural  advantages  of  soil  and  climate, 
the  Italian  farmers  are  mostly  poor,  and  receive  hut  small  returns 
for  their  arduous  toil.  Most  of  the  land  is  owned  by  wealthy  land- 
lords, who  rent  it  on  such  terms  that  the  tenants  are  continually  at 
a  disadvantage  and  the  methods  employed  in  working  the  land,  as 
well  as  the  implements  used,  are  of  the  most  primitive  sort. 

The  mineral  industries  are  few.     Carrara  marble  is  the 
IVIi  n  Pffi  1  ^i 

most  choice  stone  for  statuary  purposes,  and  is  ex- 
ported to  all  countries.  Most  of  the  world's  supply  of  sulphur  is 
also  obtained  from  the  Island  of  Sicily,  and  some  other  volcanic 
regions.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  some  localities,  and  is  now  being 
successfully  worked  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  government. 

The  absence  of  coal  limits  the  manufactures  to 
Manufactures  textiles  and  straw  goods,  hut  the  iron  industry 
is  being  developed.  The  Italians  have  a  special  aptitude  for  the 
tine  arts,  and  statuary,  coral  ornaments,  mosaics  and  jewelry  are  the 
most  important  articles  of  manufacture.  All  these,  on  account  of 
their  excellence,  command  a  high  price  in  foreign  markets.  Much 
of  this  work  is  done  in  the  homes  of  the  workmen.  There  are  hut 
few  large  factories,  or  shops,  even,  employing  any  number  of  work- 
men. Macaroni,  the  most  of  which  is  consumed  at  home,  is  also 
produced  in  large  quantities. 

Italy  occupies  a  central   position  on  the   Medi- 
Transportation     terranean<     sho  has  an  abundance  of  sea  coast 

and  numerous  good  harbors.  The  other  ports  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, as  well  as  those  of  the  East,  are  easily  reached  from  her 
shores,  and  these  advantages  have  given  her  a  large  carrying  trade 


350 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


:m<l  a  goodly  number  of  Italians  follow  the  sea.  The  country  also 
has  a  good  merchant  marine.  There  are  about  10,000  miles  of 
railways,  which  are  organized  into  trunk  lines  extending  along 
either  coast.  By  means  of  the  Mt.  Cenis,  St.  Grothard  and  Sim- 
plon  tunnels,  trunk  lines  also  connect  Italy  with   France,  Switzer- 


DRYING   MACARONI 

land  and  the  important  centers  of  Europe,  such  as  Vienna,  Berlin 
and  Paris.  On  account  of  these  advantages  most  of  the  export 
trade  is  by  rail. 

Borne,  the  capital,  contains  the  Vatican,  which  is  the 
residence  of  the  Pope,  and  is  the  center  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  for  the  world  as  well  as  the  center  of  government 
for  the  kingdom.     It  is  more  celebrated  for  its  historic  and  artistic 


Cities 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  35 1 

associations  than  for  its  commercial  importance.  Genoa  and 
Venice  are  the  most  important  seaports.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury Venice  was  the  commercial  center  of  the  world,  but  with  the 
change  in  commercial  routes  she  lost  her  prestige.  Milan,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  kingdom,  is  the  great  inland  commercial  city 
and  the  largest  railway  center  of  the  country.  Florence  is  noted 
for  its  art  works.  Palermo  is  the  commercial  center  of  Sicily, 
and  Colonia,  Brindisi  and  Ancona  are  important  ports  on  the 
Suez  Canal  route. 

The  annual  exports  amount  to  about  $284,000,000, 
Commerce  ;m(l  tho  imports  to  $342,000,000.  The  exports  are 
raw  silk,  olives,  sulphur,  marble,  art  works  and  textiles.  The 
silk  and  art  goods  goto  France,  the  United  States  and  Switzerland 
and  some  of  the  cotton  goods  go  to  Turkey.  The  imports  are 
cotton  from  Egypt  and  the  United  States,  wheat  from  Hungary, 
manufactures  and  textiles  from  Great  Britain  and  Germain*.  In 
the  foreign  trade  Germany  ranks  first,  followed  in  order  by  Switz- 
erland, France,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The  exports 
to  this  country  amount  to  about  $63,333,000  a  year,  and  the 
imports  from  us  to  about  $35,000,000.  We  buy  the  Italians'  nit 
goods  and  Carrara  marble,  olive  oil  and  straw  goods,  and  sell  them 
cotton,  agricultural  implements,  machinery  and  hardware. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  agricultural  methods  employed  in 

Spain  and  those  in  vogue  in  France  and  Germany?     What  is  the  cause  of 
the  difference? 

Why  are  there  so  few  manufactures  in  Spain  and   Portugal?     What 

effect  has  this  condition  upon  the  commercial  interests  of  these  countries? 
How   do  the  agricultural  methods  employed  in    Italy  compare  with 
those  iii  the  United  States?       Would    the   Italians  lie  sneeesst'iil   farmers    in 
the  I   nited  States? 

What  commercial  advantages  doe-  itah  derive  from  her  geographical 
conditions? 


Chapter  XI. 
THE   BALKAN    COUNTRIES. 

Those  countries  occupy  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and 
LOCATION  4  .    .4  rp.  ,,  ^ 

contiguous  territory,      lney  are  Greece,  Koumama, 

Servia,  Montenegro,  Bulgaria  and  Turkey  in  Europe.       They  are 
all  commercially  unimportant. 

Greece  occupies  the  southern  end  of  the  Balkan  Pen- 
unjDcvu  insula.  It  is  rugged  and  mountainous,  with  a  deeply 
indented  roast.  The  area  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  West 
Virginia,  and  its  population  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  city  of 
Chicago.  Agriculture  occupies  one-half  of  the  population.  Fruit 
is  the  most  important  crop  and  Greece  is  one  of  the  largest 
producers  of  currants.  Ores  of  lead  and  zinc  are  also  exported. 
The  manufactures  are  unimportant.  The  country  does  con- 
siderable of  the  carrying  trade  for  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 
The  Corinth  ship  canal,  four  miles  long,  shortens  the  route 
between  Adriatic  ports  and  Western  Europe  by  several  hundred 
miles.  Most  of  the  commerce  is  with  Great  Britain,  France  and 
Russia,  that  with  the  United  States  amounting  to  only  $2,000,000 
a  year. 

These  countries  occupy  the  basin  of  the  lower 
ROUMANIA  Danube,  and  are  the  great   grain  producers  of 

AND  BULGARIA  Europe<  Wh<i;lt  and  uorn  are  fcne  principal 
crops.  Roumania  is  a  little  smaller  than  Alabama,  and  has  a 
population  of  nearly  6,000,000.  Bulgaria  is  a  little  larger  than 
Indiana,  and  has  a  population  of  a  little  less  than  three  and  one- 
third  millions.     Roumania  is  one  of  the  leading  wheal   producing 

countries    of  the   continent.       Besides    cereals,   sugar-beets,    flax, 

353 


354 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


honey,  tobacco,  fruits  and  wine  are  produced,  and  coal,  petroleum 
and  salt  are  mined. 

The  commerce  of  the  countries  finds  its  outlet  through  the 
Danube  which  is  the  international  waterway.  Railways  also  con- 
nect the  principal  towns,  and  these  w7ith  cities  in  adjoining 
countries.  The  chief  export  is  grain,  which  goes  to  Great  Britain, 
Austria  and  Germany. 


THE   HAKBOR,   CONSTANTINOPLE 


SERVIA   AND 
MONTENEGRO 


Servia  is  a  small  country  in  the  valley  of  the 
Moravia  River.  Its  chief  industry  is  growing 
corn  and  other  grains,  and  fruit  and  live-stock, 
while  ores  of  silver,  lead,  copper  and  iron,  and  some  coal,  are 
mined  to  a  limited  extent.  The  commerce  is  almost  wholly  with 
Austria. 

Montenegro  is  a   small  principality   between  Servia  and  the 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 

sea.      It  is  mountainous,  lias  no  railways  and   its  industries  are  of 

little  importance.     Stock-raising  is  the  most  important  occupation, 

and  the  leading  trade  is  with   Austria-Hungary  and  Great   Britain. 

~,.,~.-„.,     ~~   ™.w^     The  empire  of  the  Sultan  extends  from  the 

TURKEY,   OR   THE      p  ,,„.,,,  ,     .    •     M-  , 

I>alkan    Peninsula   through  Asia  .Minor  and 

OTTOMAN   EMPIRE      ...  ...  .  r 

Arabia,  and   claims  suzerainty  over    bgypt 

and  Tripoli.  European  Turkey  has  an  area  of  60,000  square 
miles,  and  the  Asiatic  portion  of  the  empire  an  area  of  600,000. 
The  entire  country  is  in  a  backward  condition,  and  but  few  of 
the  industries  are  developed.  Politically  the  Turkish  Empire  is 
referred  to  as  the  "Sick  Man  of  Europe."  Wheat,  tobacco, 
cotton  and  roses,  from  which  ottar  of  roses  is  made,  arc  the  most 
important  crops.  Grazing  is  an  important  industry  in  some  sec- 
tions, and  wool  and  mohair,  the  wool  of  the  Angora  goat,  are 
exported. 

The  leading  manufactures  are  ottar  of  roses,  rugs  and  carpet-. 
The  rugs  are  famous  for  their  beauty,  and  command  high  prices 
in  all  civilized  countries.  Constantinople  is  the  chief  center  of 
trade,  as  well  as  the  capital  of  the  empire.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Bosporus  and  commands  a  strong  strategic  position,  which  gives  it 
an  importance  it  could  not  have  from  its  commerce  and  industries 
alone.  It  is  connected  with  European  cities  by  railway  and  with 
the  East  by  caravan  routes,  and  carries  on  a  trade  with  nearly  all 
the  countries  of  the  world.  Smyrna,  on  the  Mediterranean,  is  the 
most  important  seaport,  and  has  direct  communication  with  most  of 
the  European  ports.  It  is  also  the  terminus  of  many  caravan 
routes  from  the  East.  Damascus  is  the  starting  point  for  caravans 
to  various  sections  of  Asia,  and  Beirut  is  an  important  center  for 
the  manufacture  of  textiles.  It  is  connected  with  Damascus  by 
railway.  Most  of  the  trade  is  with  European  countries.  The 
United  States  imports  from  Turkey  opium,  ottar  of  roses,  rugs, 
wool,  gums,  hides,  silk  and  Turkish  tobacco,  to  the  value  of  about 


350  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

$4,000,000  annually.     Our  exports  are  very  small,  amounting  to 
less  than  $400,000  a  year. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  does  the  history  of  Greece,  Roumania  and  Bulgaria  teach  in 
regard  to  industrial  and  commercial  prosperity? 

What  are  the  chief  causes  of  the  backward  condition  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  ? 

Of  what  importance  is  Constantinople  as  a  financial  and  commercial 
center? 


POSITION   AND 
EXTENT 


Chapteb  XII. 
THE    RUSSIAN    EMPIRE. 

The  Russian  Empire  occupies  one-half  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  contains  one-seventh  of 
the  land  of  the  globe  and,  in  area,  ranks 
next  to  the  British  Empire.  With  a  few  exceptions,  it  is  a  vast 
plain,  extending  from  the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  —  a  dis- 
tance of  6,000  miles  —  and  from  the  Black  Sea,  Persia  and  Chinese 
Empire  on  the  south  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  north.  Its  terri- 
tory is  compacted  into  one  great  land  mass  between  the  different 
parts  of  which  there  are  no  obstructive  barriers.  The  area  in 
square  miles  is  8,666,000  square  miles,  and  the  population  is  over 
130,000,000.  The  entire  region  is  in  the  cool  temperate  and  frigid 
zones.  The  Empire  comprises  Russia  in  Europe,  Siberia,  Trans- 
Caucasia  and  Trans-Caspia. 

„».„„,.  ,».  This  division  comprises  a  little  more  than  one-half 
RUSSIA  IN       e  ,,  i-ii         ,  e     ^     * 

ot  Europe,  and  includes  about  one-tourth  ot  the 
EUROPE  ,    ,      .,      •  T.   .  .      ,  . 

area  ot  the   Empire.     It  is  a  vast   plain,  extending 

from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  from  the  Baltic  to 
the  Ural  Mountains.  The  northern  third  is  too  cold  for  agricul- 
tural purposes.  The  middle  portion  is  covered  with  heavy  forests 
of  valuable  hard  and  soft  woods,  and  the  southern  part  is  the 
the  granary  of  Europe.  Rice,  oats,  wheat  and  flax  are  raised  in 
large  quantities,  and  Russian  wheat  competes  with  that  of  the 
United  States  in  the  markets  of  Europe.  The  land  is  worked  on 
the  community  plan  ;  that  is,  the  residents  of  a  neighborhood,  or  a 
small  village,  work  the  land  in  common,  and  each  family  have  their 
proportionate   share   of  the   crops.       The   methods   employed   are 

357 


358 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


primitive  and  the  rate  of  production  is  low.  Most  of  the  Russian 
farmers,  or  peasants,  are  too  ignorant  to  compete  successfully  with 
the  formers  of  Western  Europe  or  the  United  States. 

The  mineral  resources  are  abundant.     Coal  is  found  in 

Poland  and  the  basin  of  the  Don.     Iron  ore  occurs 

in  Poland  and  various  other  localities,  and  gold  and  platinum  are 


A   FLOUR  MILL  ON   THE  TRANS-SIBERIAN   RAILWAY 

found  in  the   Ural  Mountains,   where  nine-tenths  of  the    world's 

supply  of  platinum  is  obtained. 

Manufactures  are  rapidly  on  the   increase,  and 
now  most  of  the  iron  and  steel  goods  and  rail- 


Manufactures 


way  supplies  are  made  within  the  country.  There  has  also  been 
a  large  advance  in  the  manufacture  of  textiles,  and  Russia  has 
become  an  exporter  of  the  coarser  grades  of  cotton  and  linen 
fabrics. 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY  359 

Siberia    is   a    vast    plain    which    climatically    can    be 

SIBERIA 

divided  into  three  sections.     The  agricultural  section 

of  the  south,  the  forest  and  mineral  belt  occupying  the  middle  por- 
tion, and  the  frozen  tundras  of  the  north.  The  agricultural  district 
has  a  warm  and  somewhat  arid  climate,  hut  is  well  suited  to  -row- 
ing cereals,  and  most  other  crops  of  the 'temperate  latitude.  For 
its  adaptation  to  hard  grained  wheat  it  rivals  Minnesota,  Dakota 
and  Manitoba.  Some  of  the  agricultural  sections  also  produce  oats 
and  rice  in  abundance.  The  forest  belt  isa  series  of  vasl  resources 
which  have  not  yet  been  developed.  In  the  near  future  this  region 
will  furnish  the  timber  supply  for  Europe.  In  area,  the  foresl  bell 
is  second  only  to  that  of  North  America.  Gold  and  iron  abound. 
Gold  mines  are  also  worked  along  the  Amoor  River  in  the  northern 
division,  winch  in  other  respects  is  a  worthless  waste  of  frozen 
tundra. 

This   division  of  the  Empire  lies  between 
TRANS-CAUCASIA       fche    Cauca8us    M()Unt:lins   ;lll(l    persia.      „ 

contains  numerous  fertile  valleys  and  is  almost  entirely  devoted  to 

agriculture.     It   is  also  rich   in  petroleum.     Baku  on  the  Caspian 

Sea  is  the  center  of  the  oil   fields,  the  annual  output   of  which  is  a 

little  more  than  that  of  the  United   States.     The  oil   is  transported 

by   rail,    steamer   and    pipe    lines.      Copper,    salt,    iron,    coal    and 

manganese  are  also  found  in  Trans-Caucasia,  and  are  mined  to  a 

limited  extent. 

This    division    embrace-    Turkestan,    and    the 
TRANS-CASPIA       region  t(.   thfl   u()y{]^   ;nciudmg   the  i):lsjlls  0f 

the  Ann  and  Daria  Rivers.      Lack  of  moisture  render-  a  lame  part 

of  the  region  unproductive,  and  none  of  its   resources  have  been 

well   developed.      The    leading    manufacture-    are    cotton    and    -ilk 

fabrics  and  leather  goods. 

The  many   lonsj  and  sluggish  rivers  of  Euro- 
Transportation       peaQ    Rugsia  nm|i>li  an  extensive  ByBtem  of 


366 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


waterways,  the  Volga  and  its  tributaries  alone  having  over  7000 
miles.  These  rivers  have  been  extensively  canalized,  and  also 
connected  by  an  extensive  system  of  canals,  so  that  there  are  now 
aksiost  50,000  miles  of  inland  waterways  in  the  country.  The  ease 
with  which  canals  could  be  constructed  delayed  the  building  of 
railways  to  a  late  date. 

St.  Petersburg  and  Riga  on  the  Baltic,  Archangel  on  the 
White,  and  Odessa  on  the  Black  Sea,  are  important  ports,  but  the 
northern  ports  are  closed  the  greater  part  of  the  year  by  ice,  and 


Odessa  has  an  outlet  to  the  sea  only  through  waters  controlled  by 
other  governments.  Previous  to  the  war  with  Japan,  Vladivostock 
and  Port  Arthur,  which  was  leased  from  China,  were  the  important 
ports  on  the  Pacific. 

The  railway  system  of  the  Empire  embraces  about  40,000 
miles,  all  of  which  is  under  the  control  of  the  state.  All  of  the 
leading  cities  of  European  Russia  are  connected  by  rail,  and  a  line 
has  been  built  from  Baku  through  the  entire  length  of  Trans- 
Caspia  ;  but  the  greatest  achievement  in  railway  building  was  in 
the  construction  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  from  St.  Petersburg 
to  Vladivostock  and  Port  Arthur,  a  distance  of  6,000  miles.     The 


COMMERCE   AND    [NDUSTRY  361 

completion  of  this  road  opens  to  settiemenl  and  usefulness  the 
vasl  Siberian  territory  with  all  of  its  agricultural,  fores!  and 
mineral  resources,  and  place-  the  ports  of  China  and  Japan  within 
sixteen  days' journey  of  Western  Europe.  If  placed  upon  the  map 
of  North  America,  this  road  would  extend  from  the  extreme  point 
of  the  Peninsula  of  Alaska  to  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  the  longest  com- 
pleted trunk  line  of  railway  in  the  world. 

In  addition  to  the  seaports  already  mentioned,  the 
following  cities  are  of  importance :  St.  Petersburg,  the 
capital,  has  a  population  of  some  over  1,250,000.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Neva,  and  is  the  farthest  north  of  any  large  city.  The  ship 
canal  completed  in  1885  makes  it  a  seaport,  and  it  is  also  connected 
by  canals  with  the  lame  livers  of  European  Russia.  St.  Peters- 
burg is  an  important  railway  center,  and  the  commercial  and  finan- 
cial center  for  the  northern  part  of  the  Empire.  Important 
manufactures  of  cotton  and  linen  goods,  also  of  iron  and  steel,  are 
located  here.  Moscow  is  the  most  important  railway  center,  and 
one  of  the  largest  manufacturing  and  commercial  cities  of  the  Em- 
pire. Astrakhan  is  the  center  of  trade  for  the  country  to  the  south- 
east. Baku  is  the  great  petroleum  market,  and  Warsaw  ranks  next 
to  Moscow  a>  a  trade  center. 

Nijni-Novgorod  is  the  city  in  which  the  great  annual  fair  is 
held.  In  duly  of  each  year,  the  merchants  from  Western  Europe 
and  from  Asia  gather  at  this  city  for  the  purpose  of  buying  and  sell- 
ing  and  exchanging  goods.  Nijni  Novgorod  is  located  on  the  greal 
trade  route  where  the  metals  and  other  wares  of  the  north  meet  the 
products  of  the  south,  fish  from  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  tea,  cotton, 
silk  and  other  products  from  Persia,  China  and  Japan.  This  fair 
brings  together  about  200,000  people  from  all  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent, and  almost  everything  in  the  line  of  merchandise  is  offered 
for  sale.  The  total  value  of  the  transactions  reaches  about 
$100,000,000. 


362  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

Most  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  Great  Britain  and 
Germany.  The  exports  are  cereals,  furs,  platinum 
and  petroleum,  and  the  imports  are  raw  textiles,  coal  and  manu- 
factures. In  her  trade  with  the  United  States,  Russia  sells  us 
wools,  skins  and  furs,  and  buys  of  us  raw  cotton  and  agricultural 
machinery.  Our  trade  with  European  Russia  amounts  to  about 
$16,000,000  annually,  three-fourths  of  which  is  exports.  Russia's 
trade  with  the  United  States  is  small,  but  there  is  greater  oppor- 
tunity for  the  extension  of  American  trade  within  this  country 
than  with  almost  any  other.  Russia  needs  our  manufactures. 
The  completion  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  connecting  at 
Vladivostock  and  Port  Arthur  with  American  lines  of  Pacific 
steamers,  makes  transportation  convenient  and  comparatively 
cheap,  and  the  vast  resources  of  Russia,  second  only  to  those  of  the 
United  States  and  Chinese  Empire,  afford  the  basis  of  an  extensive 
commerce.  For  many  years  to  come,  she  is  destined  to  be  the 
exporter  of  food  stuffs  and  raw  material,  and  the  importer  of 
manufactured  products.  By  wise  management  the  United  States 
can  secure  a  good  portion  of  this  trade. 

QUESTIONS. 

How  does  Russia  compare,  in  area  and  population,  with  the  United 
States  ? 

How  does  it  compare  with  the  United  States  in  its  influence  as  a 
world  power?     In  the  extent  and  value  of  its  products? 

What  caused  railroad  construction  to  be  so  long  delayed  in  Russia  ? 
What  led  to  the  construction  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway? 

What  makes  Nijni-Novgorod  an  important  commercial  center?  Name 
and  locate  the  other  important  commercial  centers  of  the  Empire. 

Why  is  Russia's  trade  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany  larger  than 
that  with  the  United  States  ? 

What  are  Americans  doing  to  increase  their  trade  with  Russia? 


Chapter  XIII. 
INDIA,    CEYLON    AND    THE    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS 

British  India  includes  the  peninsula  between  the  Arabian 
Sea  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  the  province  of  Burmah 
extending  to  the  east  and  north.  Its  total  area  is  over  one-half, 
and  its  population  about  three  and  one-half  times  thai  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  the  most  densely  populated  possession  of 
the  British  Empire.  India  is  separated  from  the  countries  at  the 
north  by  the  great  barrier  of  the  Himalaya  and  the  Hindu-Kush 
mountains.  Through  these  extend  the  Khiabar  and  Bolan  passes, 
affording  communication  with  the  interior.  It>  communication 
with  other  countries  is  almost  entirely  by  sea.  The  moun- 
tains and  the  foot-hills  slope  down  to  the  valley  of  the  Granges 
and  Brahmapootra  on  the  east,  and  to  that  of  the  Indus  on 
the  west  side  of  the  country.  South  of  these  valleys  lies  the 
Plateau  of  Deccan,  forming  the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula. 
In  latitude,  the  country  corresponds  with  that  part  of  America 
extending  from  New  York  City  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River. 
The  climate  is  tropical,  but  the  high  altitude  of  the  northern  prov- 
inces gives  them  a  much  lower  mean  annual  temperature  than  the 
other  portions  of  the  country.  The  rainfall  is  abundant,  but  very 
unevenly  distributed.  Some  districts  among  the  Himalayas  have 
the  heaviest  rainfall  in  the  world,  and  in  occasional  localities  more 
rain  falls  in  a  day  than  in  the  best  watered  portions  of  the  United 
.States  in  a  year.  On  account  of  the  monsoons,  the  country  is 
subject  to  a  wet  and  a  dry  season,  and  in  many  sections  irrigation 
is  necessary  to  the  successful  growing  of  crops, 

363 


364 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


India  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural  country, 
Agriculture  an(j  more  ^nan  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  tilling  the  soiL  The  land  is  divided  into  small  hold- 
ings, and  the  most  primitive  methods  are  in  vogue,  consequently 
the  people  receive  poor  returns  for  the  labor  expended.  Rice, 
wheat,  sugar  cane,  millet  and  maize  are  the  principal  food  prod- 
ucts. Jute,  cotton,  opium,  tea  and  oil-seeds  are  grown  for 
export.     The  tea  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  has  now  nearly  dis- 


THE  WATER  FRONT,  BOMBAY 

placed  that  of  China  and  Japan  in  English  markets.      Silk  is  grown 

to  some  extent,  and  its  culture  is  rapidly  increasing.     The  coffee 

crop  is  also  one  of  prime  importance. 

Nearly    all    of  the   manufactures    are    in    the 
Manufactures       nature  of  h.md  crafts      The  Hindoos  are  re_ 

markably  skilful  in  the  weaving  of  fine  cotton  fabrics,  rugs,  car- 
pets and  shawls,  and  in  the  carving  of  wood  and  ivory.  The 
products  of  their  handiwork  are  sought  by  the  wealthy  of  all  lands, 
and  some  articles,  like  the  Cashmere  shawls,  command  fabulous 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


365 


prices.  Recently  the  English  factory  system  has  been  introduced, 
and  now  constitutes  an  important  feature  of  the  cotton  industry  on 
the  west  coast,  and  of  the  jute  manufacture  in  and  around  Calcutta. 
The  Ganges  is  navigable  for  about  a  thousand 
Transportation  milegj  the  Brahmapootra  is  the  important 
waterway  for  small  vessels,  and  the  Irrawaddy  is  navigable  for 
seven   hundred    miles.     There    are   upwards    of  25,000    miles    of 


STATION  OF  THE  GREAT  BENGAL  RAILWAY,  BENGAL 

railway  connecting  all  the  important  towns  of  the  interior 
with  each  other  and  with  the  nearest  seaports.  These  facilities 
enable  the  provinces  in  the  interior  to  dispose  of  their  products  at 
the  coast  at  a  reasonable  profit.  Mail  and  telegraph  facilities  are 
also  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  country.  All  these  conditions  are 
largely  due  to  the  administration  of  the  British  Government,  which 
lias    taken    great    interest    in   the    development  of   public   works. 


366  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSfRY 

Calcutta,  the  capital,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  with 
Cities  oyer  ^000,000  inhabitants,  is  the  largest  city  and  the 
leading  commercial  and  financial  center.  Bombay,  on  the  west 
coast,  is  the  leading  port  for  commerce  passing  through  the  Suez 
Canal.  Madias,  on  the  eastern  coast,  has  an  important  trade  in 
cotton  -and  hides.  Mandalay  and  Rangoon  are  the  most  important 
commercial  centers  of  Burma. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  India  amounts  to  about 
Commerce  $60o,000,000  a  year,  which,  considering  its  popu- 
lation, is  small.  This  condition  is  largely  due  to  the  abject  poverty 
of  a  large  number  of  the  people.  The  exports  are  cotton,  wheat, 
rice,  opium,  timber  and  manufactured  goods,  consisting  of  textiles, 
rugs,  carpets,  shawls  and  carved  wood  and  ivory.  About  seventy 
per  cent  of  the  trade  is  with  Great  Britain.  China  and  Germany 
have  the  next  largest  shares.  India  imports  kerosene  from  this 
country,  and  furnishes  us  with  indigo,  some  textiles  and  opium. 

These  comprise  several  British  colonies  on  and 

around  the  Straits  of  Malacca.    The  most  impor- 

SETTLEMENTS    tant  are  Singaporej  penang  and  Malacca.     The 

cities  in  the  Straits  have  a  large  transport  trade,  that  of  Singapore 
amounting  to  about  $400,000,000  a  year.  The  largest  tin  mines 
in  the  world  are  near  this  port,  and  most  of  their  product  is 
exported  to  the  United  States.  Other  important  exports  are 
rubber,  gutta  percha,  spices,  tapioca  and  rattan.  The  imports 
are  cotton  cloth,  rice  and  opium. 

QUESTIONS. 

In  what  lines  of  manufacture  are  the  Hindoos  especially  skilful?  To 
what  countries  are  most  of  their  manufactured  products  sent? 

How  do  the  buildings  in  the  cities  of  India  compare  with  those  in  the 
large  cities  of  Europe  and  the  United  States? 

What  commercial  and  industrial  benefits  has  Great  Britain  conferred 
upon  India? 


Chapter  XIV. 
THE    CHINESE   EMPIRE. 

The  Chinese  Empire  comprises  China  proper, 
POSITION  AND  Manchuria?  ]\iong0iia)  Eastern  Turkestan  and 
EXTENT  Thibet.     Its  area  is  4,000,000  square  miles,  or 

one  and  one-third  times  that  of  the  United  States,  and  its  popu- 
lation is  about  400,000,000.  China  proper  has  about  one-half 
of  the  area  of  the  United  States,  and  a  population  of  about 
245,220,000,  being  more  densely  populated  than  any  other 
country  in  the  world.  Texas,  if  all  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
United  States  were  crowded  within  her  boundaries,  would  not 
contain  as  many  people  to  the  square  mile.  In  latitude,  surface 
and  climate,  China  closely  resembles  the  United  States,  but  the 
influence  of  the  monsoons  makes  it  possible  to  raise  crops  suited  to 
both  the  temperate  and  tropical  regions. 

Agriculture  is  the  great  industry  of  China  and 
Agriculture  mos^  0f  ^]ie  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  it.  Every 
foot  of  tillable  soil  is  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  The  land  is 
divided  into  small  tracts,  of  a  few  acres  each,  and  the  country  has 
the  appearance  of  a  vast  garden.  All  work  is  performed  by  hand 
labor  and  the  most  primitive  methods  and  implements  are  em- 
ployed, yet  abundant  crops  are  raised.  In  many  localities  irriga- 
tion is  practised,  the  water  being  raised  by  means  of  wheels  turned 
by  hand  or  by  animal  power.  The  first  wheel  raises  the  water  to 
a  tank  from  which  it  is  lifted  to  the  second  by  another  wheel  ;  and 
so  on  until  the  highest  level  is  reached.  From  here  the  water  is 
distributed  down  the  slope.  Rice  is  grown  on  the  lowlands  of  the 
coast,  and  wheat,  peas  and  millet  wherever  they  can  be  cultivated. 
^^  367 


368 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


Rice  is  the  most  important  food  crop,  and  China  contributes  one- 
half  of  the  world's  supply.  Silk  is  also  extensively  raised  and 
cotton  is  quite  generally  raised  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Empire 
along  the  low  coast  of  the  Yangtse.  There  are  no  large  fields  as 
in  the  United  States,  but  each  garden  contains  a  few  plants,  and 
uhese,  in  the  aggregate,  constitute  a  considerable  supply,  all  of 
-'hi  h  is  consumed  in  the  country. 


Mineral  Resources 


PACKING  BRICK  TEA 

The  mineral  resources  are  extensive  and 
valuable,  but  they  have  not  been  developed. 
Bituminous  and  anthracite  coal  of  excellent  quality  are  found  in  all 
the  provinces.  The  coal  tields  of  the  Empire  are  larger  than  those 
of  Europe  combined,  and  some  authorities  think  they  are  the  most 
extensive  in  the  world.  These  great  deposits  of  coal  assure  the 
development  of  extensive  manufacturing  industries  when  conditions 
for  such  enterprises  are  ripe.  The  country  also  contains  large 
deposits   of  iron   ore,   some  of  which  is  near  the  coal.     Foreign 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  ;;i,.i 

capital  is  seeking  to  develop  these  resources,  and  in  a  few  places 
has  made  a  beginning.  The  Germans  have  a  mining  concession  in 
Shantung  Peninsula,  and  a  London  company  has  obtained  the 
privilege  of  mining  the  coal  in  Shansi.  Copper,  tin,  lead  and 
silver  are  also  found,  and  are  mined  to  some  extent,  and  the 
abundance  of  porcelain  clay  of  the  finest  quality  has  made  China 
one  of  the  leading  countries  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  ware. 

Most  of  the  manufactures  are  home   industries, 

Manufactures         i  •    ,  ,     .     ,     ,      ,       ,   ,  , 

and  are  earned  on  exclusively  by  hand  labor. 

The  silk  and  cotton  fabrics  are  nearly  all  made  in  this  way,  but 
recently  a  few  factories,  under  foreign  management,  have  been 
established.  These  are  for  reeling  silk  and  spinning  cotton.  ( !hina 
silks  are  noted  for  their  fine  texture  and  delicate  finish.  Porcelain, 
or  chinaware,  is  also  an  important  manufacture,  and  in  many 
homes  rhea,  the  fiber  of  Chinese  grass,  is  woven  into  light  fabrics 
for  summer  wear. 

Since  the  importation  of  firearms  was  prohibited  by  the  Allied 
Powers  in  1898,  a  number  of  manufactories  have  been  established 
for  the  purpose  of  supplying  these  to  the  army.  All  of  these  fac- 
tories are  government  concessions,  and  are  under  the  supervision 
of  European  mechanics. 

The  large  rivers  constitute  the  important  water- 
Transportation  „  •    .      .,        •     ,       •  rP1        V 

r  ways  into  the  interior.      the    langt-e  is  navi- 

gable for  over  a  thousand  miles,  the  Hoangho  is  obstructed  by 
bars,  but  is  navigable  for  small  craft,  and  the  Sikiang  on  the 
south  furnishes  the  outlet  for  the  country  tributary  to  Canton 
and  Hongkong.  Canals  are  numerous,  but  when  compared  with 
those  of  Europe  or  the  United  States  are  poor.  The  Grand  Canal 
extends  from  Hangchow  to  Tientsin,  a  distance  of  700  miles,  and 
is  still  in  a  usable  condition  throughout  mosl  of  its  length,  though 
it  was  constructed  more  than  a  thousand  years  ago.  Roads  are  so 
poor  that  transportation   through  the   interior  is  well    nigh  impos- 


370 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


sible,  and  there  are  less  than  500  miles  of  railway  in  the  entire 
country.  The  most  important  line  —  a  branch  of  the  Trans-Siberia 
Railway  —  extends  to  Port  Arthur.  The  innovations  consequent 
upon  the  introduction  of  railways  make  their  construction  a  slow 
process. 

Pekin,  the  capital,  is  significant  only  as  a  political  center. 

Since  the  Boxer  outbreak  in  1898,  the  representatives  of 
foreign  governments  have  been  granted  special  privileges  for  pro- 
tecting the   quarter  in  which  they  reside,  and  have  built  a  city, 


Cities 


CUSTOM  HOUSE,  TIENTSIN 

resembling    in   structure  and    plan,  those    found    in    Europe    and 

America.     Tientsin  is  the  seaport  of  Pekin,  and  has  a  large  trade. 

Shanghai  is  the  most  important  center  of  trade  with  the  United 

States  and  Japan,  and  Canton,  the  largest  city  of  the  Empire,  has 

in  connection  with  Hongkong,  a  large  trade  with  Great  Britain. 

The  inland  cities  are  of  but  little  commercial  importance. 

~  The  trade  of  the  inland  provinces  is   small.     The 

Commerce  .      .  ,  ,,,.,,. 

region  is  sparsely  settled,  the  inhabitants  are  poor, 

and  the  difficulty  of  transportation  prevents  extensive  exportation 

or   importation  of  merchandise.      Skins,   wool  and  musk  are  ob- 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  371 

tained  from  Thibet.  Mongolia  is  good  grazing  region,  and  sup- 
plies the  camels  required  in  caravan  trade  with  Russia.  Manchuria 
is  a  good  grazing  and  farming  district,  and  exports  millet  and 
animal  products  to  China  proper. 

The  great  hulk  of  foreign  commerce  is  carried  on  l>v  China 
through  open,  or  treaty,  ports,  of  which  Tientsin,  Shanghai  and 
Canton  are  the  most  important.  The  exports  are  tea,  raw  silk, 
porcelain,  silk  goods  and  such  hand  work  as  lacquer  ware  and 
carved  wood  and  ivory,  in  which  the  Chinese  are  remarkably 
skilful.  The  leading  imports  are  cotton  goods,  opium,  rice, 
wheat  flour,  kerosene,  silk,  metals  and  machinery.  Nearly  one- 
fifth  of  the  tea  goes- to  the  United  States  and  about  one-eleventh 
goes  to  Great  Britain.  Nearly  half  of  the  foreign  trade  is  through 
Hongkong,  and  the  largest  share  is  with  Great  Britain.  Most  all 
of  this  is  in  the  hands  of  European  agents  residing  in  Hongkong  or 
Canton. 

A  large  carrying  trade  is  maintained  with  Russia,  and,  pre- 
vious to  the  construction  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  caravans 
made  overland  trips  as  far  as  Morocco.  The  principal  article  of 
this  trade  is  tea  which  is  pressed  into  bricks  for  convenience  in 
transportation,  and  also  to  meet  the  tastes  of  the  Russians,  who 
have  been  accustomed  to  obtaining  it  in  this  form  for  many  years. 

The  trade  with  the  United  States  is  steadily  increasing. 
China  imports  from  us  kerosene,  wheat  flour,  machinery  and  hard- 
ware, and  exports  to  us  tea,  silk  and  wares  peculiar  to  their 
manufacture.  The  American  trade  nearly  all  goes  through  the 
Pacific  ports,  Seattle  and  San  Francisco,  and  lines  of  steamers  are 
maintained  between  these  cities  and  the  Chinese  ports. 

The  Chinese  belong  to  the  yellow  race.     They  are 

*         conservative,  industrious  and  frugal.      They  work 

long  hours  and  for  low  wages,  and  while  some  acquire  means  and 

a  few  become. wealthy,  the  great  mass  of  the  people  are  in  abject 


372  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

poverty.  Aside  from  the  inherited  right  to  the  throne,  any  office 
in  the  Empire  is  open  to  the  humblest  citizen,  if  by  ability  in  the 
execution  of  public  trusts  he  can  show  himself  worthy  of  it.  Pro- 
motion in  the  Government  service  is  by  examination,  and  only  the 
ablest  scholars  succeed  in  securing  positions. 

The  Chinese  are  the  representatives  of  the  oldest  existing 
civilization.  When  the  nations  of  the  West  were  in  a  state  of 
barbarism,  these  people  were  probably  as  far  advanced  as  they  are 
today,  and  for  more  than  2000  years  they  were  considered  the 
only  civilized  people  of  the  Far  East.  They  afford  the  only  illus- 
tration of  people  who,  for  such  a  length  of  time,  have  neither 
advanced  or  gone  backward.  This  remarkable  characteristic  is 
largely  due' to  the  element  of  ancestor  worship  in  their  religious 
belief.  They  adhere  closely  to  the  institutions  and  customs  of 
their  forefathers,  and  are  not  willing  to  introduce  changes  which 
will  do  away  with,  or  modify,  this  ancient  usage.  Consequently 
they  make  no  progress  in  civilization. 

This  is  a  small  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Siking; 

HONGKONG  n     .  ,,  *    .      .  .,.  ,       . 

near  Canton,  and  has  an  area  of  about  thirty-nine 

square  miles.     It  is  a  British  colony  and  is  the  most  important 

commercial  port  of  Asia.     It  is  an  important  port  of  call,  and  has 

an  extensive  transient  trade,  as  it  is  frequented  by  the  ships  of  all 

nations.    The  commerce  is  in  the  hands  of  Englishmen,  and  Chinese 

who  have  become  British  subjects. 

QUESTIONS. 

Compare  the  Chinese  Empire  with  the  United  States  in  area,  climate, 
products  and  population. 

Considering  the  Chinese  to  be  the  oldest  existing  civilized  nation, 
account  for  the  backward  state  of  the  country,  and  the  lack  of  progress. 

How  do  means  of  transportation  in  China  compare  with  those  in  other 
civilized  countries? 

What  is  the  present  prospect  for  commerce  between  the  United  States 
and  China?     What  reasons  have  you  for  your  opinion? 


POSITION   AND 
EXTENT 


Chapter   XV. 
JAPAN. 

The  empire  of  Japan  extends  along  the  coast, 
from  the  twenty-second  to  the  fifty-first  paral- 
lel of  north  latitude.  The  greater  part  of  the 
empire  comprises  the  islands  of  Formosa,  Kiusiu,  Hondo,  Shi- 
koku  and  Yezo.  Formosa  was  obtained  from  China  in  the  War 
of  1894  and  1895.  Hondo  is  the  largest  and  exceeds  all  the  other 
islands  in  area.  In  all  there  are  487  islands  worthy  of  notice. 
The  area  of  the  empire  is  about  161,157  square  miles,  or  a 
little  more  than  that  of  California,  and  the  population  is  about 
46,000,000,  or  morelhan  haTTthat  of  the  United  States. 

The  surface  is  mountainous,  and  Hondo  is  characterized  by  a 
main  mountain  range,  extending  the  length  of  the  island,  and 
having  upon  either  side  lower  parallel  ranges.  The  rainfall  is 
abundant,  and  the  continual  weathering  of  the  rocks  has  covered 
the  valleys  with  a  deep  and  fertile  soil.  The  climate  in  the 
extreme  south  is  sub-tropical,  and  temperate  in  the  other  portions 
of  the  empire. 

The  large  population  makes  it  necessary  to   bring 
Agriculture     the  goil  tQ  the   highest  gtatc  of  cllitivation,  and 

also  to  occupy  every  square  foot  of  tillable  land,  which,  owing  to 
the  mountains,  does  not  exceed  one-sixth  of  the  area  of  the 
empire.  Fish  refuse  is  used  for  fertilizer  and  abundant  crops  are 
raised.  Rice  is  the  leading  food  crop,  and  is  grown  along  the 
coast  and  in  the  lowlands  of  the  west.  The  other  important  food 
crops  in  order  are  wheat,  rye,  barley  and  beans.  Tea  is  raised  in 
the  southern  islands,  and  the  lacquer  tree,  from  the  sap  of  which 

373 


374 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


the  lacquer  varnish  is  obtained,  is  extensively  cultivated.  The 
mulberry  tree  is  cultivated  throughout  Hondo,  except  in  the 
extreme  northern  part,  and  silk-raising  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant industries.  Formosa  is  the  leading  camphor-producing  country 
and  more  than  half  of  the  world's  supply  comes  from  this  island. 


WOMEN  SPINNING  AND  WEAVING  SILK 

Coal,  iron  and  copper  are  the  most  impor- 

Mineral  Resources     .     ..        ,        r™         ,       .    -       ,       ,  . 

tant  minerals.      Ihe  out-put  ot  coal  and  iron 

is  steadily  increasing  and  coal  markets  have  been  established  in 

China,  the    Straits  Settlements  and  the  Philippines.       The    most 

important  mines  are  in  Yezo  and  Kiushiu.      An  excellent  quality 

of  copper  is  also  found,  and  its  mining  has  developed  into  quite 

an  important  industry. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


375 


Manufactures 


Textiles  constitute  the  leading  manufactures, 
and  give  employment  to  over  1,000,000  opera- 
tives. Seventy  thousand  of  these  are  engaged  in  the  cotton  mills, 
of  which  there  are  now  over  seventy  in  operation.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  silk  are  also  made.  The  raw  material  is  exported  from 
India,  and  only  coarser  goods  are  made.  Much  of  both  the  cotton 
and  the  silk,  however,  is  woven  in  hand  looms  in  the  homes.     The 


THE   HARBOR,  NAGASAKI 

best  straw-matting  in  the  world  is  made  both  for  home  consump- 
tion and  for  export.  Woolens  are  also  manufactured  to  some 
extent. 

The  Japanese  are  skilful  in  the  manufacture  of  art  goods,  and 
in  making  wood,  metal,  pottery  and  small  wares,  but  these  are  all 
home  industries  and  are  of  minor  importance  in  the  commercial 
development  of  the  country.  Since  the  admission  of  foreigners  to 
the  country,  the  Japanese  have  made   remarkable  advancement  in 


37*; 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY 


the  adaptation  of  the  methods  and  machinery  of  western  nations. 
Their  manufacturing  industries  are  rapidly  developing,  and  they 
now  constitute  an  important  factor  in  the  commercial  and  industrial 
life  of  the  Empire. 

The  carriage  roads  are  in  rather  poor  condi- 
^  tion    for   the    transportation   of  merchandise, 

though  the  light  jinrikishas,  which  are  two-wheeled  carts  drawn 
by  men,  traverse  them  without  difficulty.  Most  of  the  cities  and 
productive  valleys  are  within  easy  reach  of  the  sea,  where  good 
harbors  are  numerous.  There  are 
about  4000  miles  of  railway  in 
the  Empire,  connecting  the  most 
important  towns.  Telegraph,  tel- 
ephone and  mail  services  are  also 
good. 

Tokio,  the  capital  and 

largest  city,  has  over  a 
million  inhabitants,  and  is  an  im- 
portant commercial  port.  Yoko- 
hama and  Kobe  are  centers  of  the 
largest  foreign  trade.  Nagasaki 
has  a  fine  harbor  and  is  an  impor- 
tant coal  market,  and  Hakodate 
on  Yezo  is  the  commercial  center 
for  the  north,  and  has  a  flourish- 
ing trade  in  coal  and  fish. 


Cities 


RIVER  FRONT,  TOKIO 

These  and  a  number  of  small  cities  are 
treaty  ports  and  are  open  to  the  vessels  of  all  nations. 


Commerce 


Japan  has  an  important  trade  with  foreign  nations 


and  it  is  constantly  increasing.  The  leading 
imports  are  raw  cotton,  iron  and  steel,  wool,  flax,  hemp,  jute,  jute 
textiles,  sugar,  petroleum,  machinery  and  firearms.  The  leading 
exports   are   silk,  raw   and   manufactured,  cotton  yarn,  tea,  coal 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


377 


and  copper.  Rice,  porcelain,  straw  goods,  matting  and  small 
wares  are  also  exported.  Great  Britain  furnishes  the  largest  part 
of  the  imports,  with  the  United  States  standing  second,  British 
India  third,  Germany  fourth  and  China  fifth.  The  United  States 
takes  most  of  the  exports,  of  w7hich  tea  constitutes  the  largest 
share.     Most  of  the  merchandise  enters  the  country  by  San  Fran- 


A  VIEW  IN  YOKOHAMA 


cisco  and  Seattle.  The  yearly  foreign  trade  amounts  to  aboui 
$490,000,000,  nearly  one-fourth  of  which  is  with  the  United  States. 
The  yearly  exports  to  this  country  amount  to  about  $44,000,000, 
and  the  imports  from  it  $21,000,000. 

Th     Pp     1p    ^le  JaPanese»  as   d°   the   Chinese,   belong  to  the 

Mongolian  or  yellow  race,  but  in  nearly  all  respects 

they  are  the  opposites  of  the  Chinese.     They  are  small  of  stature, 

wide  awake  and    aggressive.     They  are    quick  to  see  advantages 


378  COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 

derived  from  the  adoption  of  the  customs  and  methods  of  western 
nations,  and  in  the  last  few  decades  have  made  wonderful  progress 
in  government,  education,  industries  and  commerce.  For  this 
reason  they  have  been  styled  "the  Yankees  of  the  East,"  and  Japan 
is  also  called  the  "  Asiatic  Great  Britain."  There  is  a  constantly 
increasing  demand  for  American  products  in  their  country,  and  this 
demand  the  American  merchants  and  manufacturers  are  striving  to 
supply^; 

Previous    to    the    Chinese-Japanese    War    in     1895, 

KOREA  . 

/  Korea  was  a  dependency  of  China,  but  at  that  time  it 

became  independent.  It  is  often  referred  to  as  "the  Hermit  King- 
dom," and  from  an  industrial  and  commercial  point  of  view  it  is  of 
little  importance.  Its  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Minnesota,  and 
its  population  is  about  10,000,000.  It  is  an  important  strategic 
point  and  the  attempt  of  Russia  to  secure  a  foothold  in  the  country, 
together  with  her  refusal  to  evacuate  Manchuria,  according  to  agree- 
ment,  led  to  the  Russo-Japanese  War  in  1904-05.  As  a  result 
of  that  conflict  Korea  has  become  a  Japanese  dependency.  The 
country  is  without  any  important  cities.  Seoul  is  the  capital,  and 
Mushampo  and  Fusan  are  the  most  important  seaports. 

QUESTIONS. 

Why  is  intensive  farming  so, generally  practised  in  Japan? 

How  do  the  mineral  resources  of  Japan  compare  with  those  of  China 
in  extent  and  value?     In  regard  to  their  development? 

Account  for  the  rapid  progress  that  Japan  has  made  since  1850. 

In  what  respects  do  the  Japanese  differ  from  the  Chinese? 

Why  does  the  United  States  have  so  large  a  proportion  of  Japan's 
foreign  trade  ? 


Chapter  XVI. 
OTHER    ASIATIC    COUNTRIES. 

„. .  „„    ..t~  ™^„  These  occupy  part  of  the  Indo-China 

SIAM  AND  THE  _,     .       ,  .. 

Peninsula.      >iam    is    an    independent 

FRENCH  POSSESSIONS       ,  .      ,  ,  .,     ^        ,        ,     •      • 

kingdom,  and  the  Jbrencn  colonies  in- 
clude Tongking,  An  nam,  Cambodia  and  Lower  Cochin-China.  The 
most  important  industry  of  the  whole  region  is  raising  rice.  In  the 
deltas  of  Mekong,  more  than  half  a  million  Puis  are  grown  each  year. 
This  is  exported  to  Hongkong  and  Singapore.  Pepper, other  spices, 
tropical  fruits  and  teak  timber  are  the  other  important  exports.  The 
imports  are  manufactures,  especially  textiles  and  machinery. 

AuruAMTCTAxr  These   are   two   quasi-independent    states, 

west  of  British  India,  and  lying  between 

AND  BALUCHISTAN     rp     ,     4  ,  f,  ,/,      ., 

luikestan  and  the  sea.  Afghanistan  con- 
tains some  of  the  richest  mineral  deposits  on  the  continent.  Both 
countries  are  separated  from  India  by  mountain  ranges  which  can 
be  traversed  only  through  passes.  The  climate  is  cool-temperate, 
and  the  leading  products  are  cereals  and  peas  and  beans.  Most  of 
the  inhabitants  are  wandering  tribes,  and  there  are  no  settled 
industries.  These  countries  are  important  on  account  of  their 
position,  and  have  for  years  formed  a  "bone  of  contention*' 
between  Russia  and  Great  Britain.  The  mountains  are  crossed 
through  two  important  passes,  the  Khaibar,  connecting  Peshawur 
in  India  with  Jalalabad  and  Kabul,  and  now  traversed  by  a  rail- 
road. The  Bolan  Pass  also  contains  a  branch  of  the  same  line  of 
railway  extending  as  far  as  Kandahar.  Considerable  trade  passes 
over  these  routes.  Both  countries  are  under  the  protectorate  of 
Great  Britain. 

379 


380  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

Persia  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  Plateau  of  Iran. 

PERSIA  . 

About    one-third    of  the    country   is    desert,  but   the 

valleys  and  lowlands  receive  enough  moisture  from  the  rains  and 
the  mountain  streams  to  be  productive  and  abundant  crops  of  food- 
stuffs are  raised.  The  country  is  also  quite  rich  in  minerals,  and 
in  past  ages  mines  of  tin,  copper,  lead  and  silver  were  worked 
with  profit.  Tobacco,  small  fruits,  opium,  wool  and  silk  are  the 
most  important  products  for  export.  The  Persians  are  noted  for 
their  skill  in  weaving  rugs  and  carpets,  which  are  sold  in  American 
and  European  markets  at  fabulous  prices.  There  are  also  valuable 
pearl  fisheries  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Generally  the  industries  are 
unimportant  as  the  country  is  in  a  backward  condition.  Tabriz 
is  the  center  of  the  manufacture  of  rugs  and  shawls.  Bushire  and 
Bender-Abbas  are  the  seaports  and  Trabizond  is  the  center  of 
Russian  trade. 

The  East  Indies  include  nearly  all  the  isl- 

THE  EAST  INDIES  ,        -   ,,       ,,  ,        t>     •       /       A,     .      f 

ands    of    the    Malay    Peninsula.       Most    of 

them  are  Dutch  Colonies  and  they  have  an  excellent  administra- 
tion. The  most  important  islands  are  Java,  Borneo,  Sumatra  and 
New  Guinea.  North  Borneo  belongs  to  the  British  Empire,  West 
New  Guinea  is  Dutch  and  the  eastern  half  is  divided  between  the 
British  and  the  Germans.  All  of  these  islands  produce  tropical 
fruits  and  spices.  Java  and  Sumatra  lead  in  the  production  of 
coffee,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  rice,  indigo  and  pepper.  The  coffee 
of  this  region  is  celebrated  in  both  Europe  and  America.  The 
trade  of  the  islands  is  in  the  hands  of  middlemen,  most  of  whom 
are  Chinese. 

QUESTIONS. 

Of  what  commercial  advantage  are  her  Asiatic  colonies  to  France? 
Of  what  value  are  the  Dutch  East  Indies  to  Netherlands? 
Why  is  Great  Britain  especially  interested  in  Afghanistan  ? 
With  what  countries  does  Persia  have  the  most  extensive  trade? 


Chapter  XVII. 
AUSTRALIA. 

nrtoT-rirtXT    »im     Australia    extends    from    the    eleventh    to    the 
POSITION  AND     ,.,.,,  11  i     ^        ^    i  ..*    i 

fortieth  parallel  of  south  latitude  and  from  the 
FXTFNT 

one  hundred  thirteenth  to  the  one  hundred  fifty- 
fourth  degree  of  west  longitude.  Its  greatest  length  from  east  to 
west  is  2360  miles,  and  from  north  to  south  1600  miles.  Its  area 
is  a  little  less  than  that  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska, 
and  the  population  is  about  3,500,000. 

Australia  is  the  highest  portion  of  a  partially  submerged 
plateau,  which,  at  an  average  depth  of  six  hundred  feet,  extends 
around  the  continent  for  a  considerable  distance.  The  mountains 
are  near  the  coast,  and  from  them  the  land  slopes  gradually  to  the 
great  interior  plain  that  constitutes  the  larger  part  of  the  continent. 
In  the  center  of  this  plain  there  are  some  low  ranges  of  hills,  but 
with  this  exception  it  is  nearly  level,  and  in  the  south  it  extends  to 
the  coast.  The  highest  mountains  are  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
continent.  In  general  appearance  these  mountains  resemble  the 
Appalachians,  being  the  worn  down  remains  of  an  ancient  system. 
Someone  has  compared  the  continent  to  a  huge  plate,  high  around 
the  edges  and  gradually  sloping  to  the  great  flat  interior.  The 
comparison  is  a  happy  one. 

The  streams  flowing  eastward  into  the  Pacific  are  short  and 
rapid,  but  those  flowing  south  and  west  are  longer  and  flow  more 
quietly.  Most  of  these  lose  themselves  in  the  salt  lakes  and 
marshes  of  the  interior.  The  Murray-Darling  system,  flowing  into 
the  sea  on  the  south,  is  navigable  for  some  distance.  The  rivers 
on  the  west  are  short  and  small. 

381 


382  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

The  large  body  of  water  surrounding  the  continent 
exerts  an  equalizing  influence  over  the  temperature, 
yet  the  summers  are  extremely  hot,  owing  to  the  vast  expanse  of 
land  from  east  to  west  upon  which  the  sun's  rays  fall  vertically 
several  hours  in  the  day.  During  the  winter  the  interior  becomes 
quite  cold,  and  the  land  winds  are  several  degrees  below  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere  over  the  sea.  Frost  seldom  occurs  between 
the  coast  and  the  mountains. 

The  continent  lies  within  the  belt  of  the  southeast 
Kainia  l  trades,  and  the  eastern  coast  secures  an  abundance  of 
rain.  On  the  inner  slope  of  these  mountains  there  is  a  narrow 
strip  of  country  having  an  annual  rainfall  of  about  twenty  inches. 
From  this  semi-arid  belt  the  rain  gradually  diminishes  until  the 
great  interior  desert  is  reached.  This  great  region  is  from  five  to 
seven  degrees  wide  and  occupies  about  one-half  the  continent. 
Its  greatest  elongation  is  from  east  to  west,  and  it  extends  north- 
ward from  the  Great  Australian  Bight  to  the  twentieth  parallel. 
The  southern  coast  east  of  the  Bight  and  a  small  area  in  the 
extreme  southwest  are  well  watered,  and  the  most  northerly  section 
east  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  has  a  heavy  rainfall.  The  rainfall 
is  very  unevenly  distributed,  and  at  irregular  intervals,  sometimes 
extending  over  a  period  of  several  years  —  large  areas  suffer 
from  disastrous  droughts. 

Australia  is  so  far  removed  from  the  other  conti- 
Resources       nentg   that    itg.   anjmai    an(j   vegetable    life    are 

unlike  those  of  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Many  of  the  plants 
bear  close  resemblance  to  those  of  past  geologic  ages,  such  as  those 
of  the  coal  period.  Where  the  rainfall  is  abundant  heavy  forests 
are  found.  Some  of  the  gum  trees  approach  the  Big  Trees  of  Cali- 
fornia in  size,  growing  to  a  height  of  nearly  400  feet.  Mingled 
with  these  are  smaller  trees,  tree  ferns,  and  club  mosses  of 
gigantic  size.     Most  of  the  foliage  has  a  leathery  structure  ;  the 


COMMERCE    AND    INDUSTRY  383 

leaves  of  some  plants  turn  their  edges  instead  of  their  surface 
towards  the  sun  and  earth.  In  the  semi-arid  and  arid  regions 
varieties  of  rapid  growing  grasses  :ire  found. 

The  grasses  form  excellent  fodder  for  sheep,  and 
*  the  climate  of  the  semi-arid  regions  is  well  suited 

to  the  requirements  of  these  animals,  therefore,  we  find  sheep- 
raising  the  most  important  agricultural  industry  in  all  the  prov- 
inces. Most  of  the  flocks  are  merinos,  and  Australia  has  become 
the  largest  wool-producing  country  of  the  world.  The  wool  is  of 
excellent  quality  and  is  exported  to  all  the  leading  countries 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  woolen  goods.  The  annual  out-put 
exceeds  500,000,000  pounds,  or  nearly  one-third  the  world's  supply. 

Hides,  tallow  and  fresh  meat  are  also  important  animal  prod- 
duets  for  export.  The  meat  is  frozen  and  transported  in  refriger- 
ator ships,  reaching  England  in  an  excellent  state  of  preservation. 

Grapes  for  raisins  are  raised  in  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales. 

Sugar  cane  is  raised  in  Queensland  and  cereals  for  home  use  are 

grown  in  all  the  provinces.     The  forests  supply  a  good  quality  of 

hard-wood  lumber  for  export,  and  some  gums  and  important  drugs. 

Gold    is   the   most   important    mineral   and,    next  to 
MinpPrils 

wool,  constitutes  the  most  valuable  export.     Before 

the  discovery  of  the  metal  in  South  Africa,  the  Australian  gold 
mines  were  the  richest  known.  The  most  important  mines  are  in 
Victoria.  Copper,  silver  and  iron  ore  are  also  found,  but  the  iron 
has  not  been  worked  to  any  extent.  Coal  is  found  in  New  South 
Wales  and  New  Zealand  and  is  exported  to  quite  an  extent. 
Australian  coal  was  formerly  in  general  use  in  the  southern  part  of 
California,  but  the  discovery  of  petroleum  in  that  locality  has 
largely  done  away  with  the  necessity  for  coal. 

Melbourne,  the  capital  and  chief  city  of  Victoria,  is  the 
largest  city  of  Australia,  and  has  about  500,000  inhabi- 
tants.     It  is  on  an  excellent  land-locked  harbor  and  carries  on  an 


384  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

extensive  foreign  trade.  Adelaide,  in  South  Australia,  Sidney, 
in  New  South  Wales,  and  Brisbane,  in  Queensland,  are  the  other 
important  cities  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  continent.  Hobart 
is  the  leading  city  of  Tasmania,  and  Perth  is  the  most  important 
town  on  the  western  coast. 

All  the  eastern  provinces  and  South  Australia  are  well  supplied 
with  railways.  They  connect  all  the  important  towns  on  the  coast 
and  a  number  of  lines  extend  inland  from  300  to  500  miles.  Tele- 
graph lines  are  also  found  in  these  provinces,  and  a  line  extends  over 
the  continent  from  Adelaide  to  Palmerston  on  the  northern  coast. 
Australia  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  colonies  of 
Commerce        Great  Britaill  and  the  leading  trade  is  with  that 

country,  which  has  about  three-fourths  of  the  foreign  commerce. 
The  United  States  is  second  in  importance.  The  exports  are  gold, 
wool  and  mutton.  The  imports  are  manufactured  goods,  hard- 
ware and  machinery.  The  entire  foreign  trade  amounts  to  about 
$550,000,000  a  year,  of  which  a  little  over  $280,000,000  are  ex- 
ports. The  annual  trade  with  the  United  States  is  about  $30,000,- 
000.  Our  exports  to  Australia  consist  of  tobacco,  lumber,  leather, 
railway -supplies  and  coal-oil.  Our  principal  import  from  there  is 
wool. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  portions  of  Australia  are  suited  to  agricultural  purposes  ?  What 
portions  have  valuable  mineral  deposits? 

What  has  made  Australia  the  leading  wool-produciug  country?  In 
what  other  industries  does  she  excel  ? 

By  what  people  was  Australia  settled?  How  do  they  compare  in 
habits  and  customs  with  the  people  of  the  United  States? 

What  American  ports  are  engaged  in  trade  with  Australia  ?  Is  this 
trade  increasing? 

What  effect  will  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  have  upon  our 
trade  with  Australia? 


Chapter   XVIII. 
AFRICA. 

Africa  extends  from  the  thirty-seventh  parallel  of 
north  latitude  to  the  thirty-second  parallel  of  south 
latitude,  and  is  about  one  and  one-third  times  as  large  as  North 
America.  The  continent  is  broadest  in  the  northern  part,  and  it  has 
a  remarkably  even  coastline  with  few  good  harbors.  The  mountains 
are  different  from  those  of  any  other  continent.  In  the  interior  is  a 
vast  plateau,  with  a  rim  of  low  mountains  around  the  edge,  near 
the  coast.  The  Atlas  Range  on  the  north  reaches  an  altitude  of 
14,000  feet,  and  the  loftiest  peaks  are  in  the  eastern  and  central 
parts  of  the  continent,  among  the  Ruwenzori  and  the  Mountains 
of  the  Moon.  The  rivers  all  rise  in  the  interior  and  have  falls  or 
rapids  wherever  they  pass  over  the  Fall  line  to  the  low  land  of  the 
coast  regions.  For  this  reason  thev  are  not  navigable  for  ocean 
going  vessels,  except  for  a  few  miles  from  the  sea.  This  rim  of 
highlands  around  the  continent  prevented  the  interior  from  being 
explored  for  many  years  after  America  was  discovered  and  settled. 

The  extreme  northern  and  southern  portions  of  the 

Climate  ±-4-1  *  ^  •  +      •    1 

continent  nave  a   warm   temperate   or   semi-tropical 

climate,  but  most  of  this  vast  area  lies  within  the  tropics.  The  high- 
lands in  the  interior  of  the  equatorial  regions  give  that  part  of  the 
continent  an  abundance  of  rain,  and  the  forests  and  other  vegetation 
rival  in  luxuriance  that  of  the  Amazon  valley.  With  a  few  excep- 
tions, the  northern  and  southern  portions  of  the  continent  also  have 
sufficient  rainfall  for  agricultural  purposes  ;  but  between  these  sec- 
tions, and  the  equatorial  regions  on  the  other  side,  are  the  great  arid 
regions  forming  the  Sahara  on  the  north  and  the  Kalahari  Desert 

on  the  south. 

386 


386  COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 

A  political  map  of  Africa  shows  that  nearly 
Political  Divisions     th        ti     continent  ig  divided  among  Euro- 

pean  powers.  Morocco,  Abyssinia  and  Liberia  are  the  only  inde- 
pendent states,  and  the  Kongo  Free  State  is  a  semi-dependency  of 
Belgium.  Of  all  the  territory  claimed  by  the  different  nations, 
France  has  the  largest  area,  and  some  of  the  territory  is  valuable, 
but  the  British  possessions  are  by  far  the  most  important,  both  on 
account  of  their  resources  and  their  strategic  locations.  German 
East  Africa  is  also  a  fertile  country  and  has  valuable  resources,  but 
at  present  the  claims  of  the  other  nations  are  of  no  special  advan- 
tage to  the  holders. 

For  industrial  and  commercial  purposes  Africa  can  be  consid- 
ered in  three  divisions  :  Northern  Africa,  which  extends  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Soudan  ;  Central  Africa,  from  the  Soudan  to 
the  Zambesi  River,  and  Southern  Africa,  from  the  Zambesi  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

NORTHERN    AFRICA. 

The    land    between    the    Mediterranean    and    the 
COAST 

Atlas  Mountains  is  fertile,  and    produces  cereals, 

COUNTRIES 

semi-tropical    and   tropical   fruits,   cotton,   coffee, 

vegetables,  cacao  and  spices.  All  the  surplus  of  these  crops  is 
shipped  to  Southern  Europe,  where  it  finds  ready  sale.  Morocco 
is  poorly  governed  and  all  industries  are  in  a  backward  condition, 
but  Algeria  and  Tunis,  which  are  French  colonies,  have,  under 
the  protecting  care  of  home  government,  become  fairly  prosperous. 
Algeria  exports  large  quantities  of  cork,  and  much  of  the  so-called 
French  wine  is  produced  here.  Besides  their  own  exports,  these 
countries  handle  a  lucrative  caravan  trade  from  the  region  south  of 
the  Sahara.  Caravans  bring  ostrich  plumes,  gums,  ivory  and 
other  tropical  products,  which  are  exchanged  for  cotton  goods  and 
other  manufactures. 

The  trade  centers  are  Algiers,  which  is  the  financial  center, 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 


387 


EGYPT 


Oran,  the  most  important  seaport,  and  Tripoli,  the  center  of  the 
caravan  trade,  which  receives  about  10,000  camel  loads  of  mer- 
chandise annually.  Trade  is  principally  in  the  hands  of  Arabs,  who 
make  regular  trips  between  Tripoli  and  Timbuctoo  and  Lake  Chad. 
Egypt  is  the  most  important  country  in  Northern 
Africa.      The    fertile    portions    are    confined    to   a   few 

miles  each  side  of  the  Nile, 
from  which  water  for  irrigation 
is  supplied.  The  land  is  so 
well  tilled  that  abundant  crops 
are  grown.  Wheat,  millet  and 
cotton  are  the  most  important 
crops,  and  cotton  is  the  leading 
article  of  export.  The  long 
fiber  of  Egyptian  cotton  rivals 
in  quality  the  famous  "sea 
island"  cotton  of  the  United 
States,  and  for  that  reason 
large  quantities  of  it  are  sent 
to  this  country  each  year  for 
making  thread.  Rice  is  grown 
in  large  quantities,  but  not 
enough  for  the  needs  of  the 
the  suez  (anal  people.      Wheat  and   beans  are 

exported  to  Europe.      Sugar-cane   is  raised,  and  considerable  raw 
silk  is  produced. 

The  cultivable  area  has  recently  been  largely  extended  by  the 
construction  of  two  great  dams  across  the  Nile,  one  at  A— nan. 
and  the  other  at  Assuit.  The  former  is  one  of  the  finesl  pieces  of 
engineering  in  the  world,  and  will  store  sufficient  water  to  irrigate 
2500  square  miles  of  land. 

There  are  no  mining  or  manufacturing  industries  of  note,  and 


388 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY 


cigarettes  made  from  Turkish  tobacco  are  the  most  important  man- 
ufactured export.  The  leading  trade  is  with  Great  Britain.  The 
exports  are  agricultural  products,  and  the  imports  manufactures, 
coal  and  lumber.  Cairo  is  the  largest  city,  and  is  at  the  head  of 
the  Nile  Delta.  Alexandria  is  the  seaport  through  which  the  exports 
and  imports  pass.     Port  Said  and  Suez  are  at  the  opposite  ends 


PORT  SAID,  THE  NORTHERN  ENTRANCE  TO  THE  SUEZ  CANAL 


of  the  Suez  Canal.  Khartoum  is  the  most  important  commercial 
center  in  the  interior.  A  railway  1200  miles  in  length  extends 
from  Cairo  to  Khartoum,  and  short  branches  have  been  constructed 
:at  frequent  intervals  to  act  as  feeders  of  this  line.  About  4000 
ships  pass  through  the  Suez  Canal  each  year,  and  seven  out  of 
*very  ten  of  these  are  British. 

Egypt  is  tributary  to  Turkey,  but  politically  it  is  a  colony  of 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 


389 


Great  Britain,  which  manages  all  of  its  financial  and  commercial 
affairs  and  supervises  its  foreign  relations,  as  well  as  the  Suez  Canal. 
As  the  mountainous  regions  in  the  north  merge  into 
the  desert,  so  does  the  desert  merge  into  the  grassy 
plains  of  the  Soudan.      Commercially,  this  region   is  of  hut    little 


SOUDAN 


A  CARGO  OF  EARTHERN  .JARS,   EGYPT 

importance.  With  the  exception  of  Liberia  on  the  western  coast, 
the  territory  is  divided  between  Great  Britain,  Fiance  and  Ger- 
many, and  in  time  portions  of  it  will  undoubtedly  he  developed, 
but  the  climate  along  the  western  coast  is  so  unhcalthful  that  white 
men  can  not  live  there.  Most  of  the  trade  is  from  the  interior 
and  finds  an  outlet  through  the  northern  French  colonies  by  means 
pf  caravans. 


390 


COMMERCE    AND   INDUSTRY 


CENTRAL    AFRICA. 

This  includes  a  region  considerably  larger  than  the  United 
States.  It  has  a  tropical  climate,  abundant  rainfall  and,  over 
much  of  its  area,  a  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation.  It  has  over 
1,000,000  square  miles  of  dense  forests,  rivalling  in  the  extent 
and  value  of  their  products  those  of  the  Amazon,  and  it  is  destined 
to  become  one  of  the  great  sources  of  the  world's  timber  supply. 


SCENE  ON    AN   OSTRICH   FARM 


As  in  the  Soudan,  the  lowlands  along  the  coast  are  unheal  thful  to 
white  men,  but  in  the  interior  the  climate  is  more  favorable  and 
the  development  of  the  Kongo  region  shows  that  Europeans  can  live 
in  the  country  with  perfect  safety.  The  territory  is  divided  between 
the  Kongo  Free  Stale,  Great  Britain,  Germany ,  France  and  Portugal. 
This  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  basin  of 
the  Kongo  River  and  includes  about  800,000 
square  miles.  The  Kongo  and  its  tributaries 
furnish    over  6000   miles  of  navigable  waters,     which  enable  the 


KONGO  FREE 
STATE 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  3<Jl 

most  important  sections  of  the  country  to  be  reached  by  steamer. 
The  State  has  at  present  a  population  of  about  30,000,000  most  of 
whom  are  still  in  an  uncivilized  state.  The  most  important  prod- 
ucts are  rubber,  gums,  ivory  and  fibers  from  various  plants.  Since 
its  organization  in  1885,  this  state  has  been  under  the  administra- 
tion of  the  International  African  Association,  of  which  the  Kins  of 
Belgium  is  the  head.  Practically  he  has  been  both  the  legislator 
and  executive  officer  for  the  country.  The  local  government  is 
administered  by  the  governor-general  residing  at  Boma.  Regular 
lines  of  steamers  ply  on  the  Kongo  and  its  most  important  tribu- 
taries, and  a  railway  reaches  from  the  coast  to  Leopold ville  above 
the  raoids,  a  distance  of  about  250  miles. 

The  resources  of  this  region  are  boundless.  Besides  vegetable 
products,  there  are  large  deposits  of  iron  ore  and  other  minerals, 
which  have  not  yet  been  in  the  least  developed,  except  as  natives 
use  the  iron  for  tools  and  weapons.  The  people  are  amenable  to 
civilization  and  in  the  course  of  time  will  undoubtedly  be  developed 
into  a  strong  and  productive  nation. 

French  Kongo  extends  to  the  northeast   from 
FRENCH  KONGO    .,      ..,     ..  %       .        ,  .    .         ,    ,        .. 

the  Atlantic  Coast  and  is  bounded  on  the  south 

by  the  Kongo  River,  and  on  the  north  by  the  German  colony  of 
Kamaroon.  Its  climate  and  products  are  in  every  way  similar  to 
those  of  the  Kongo  Free  State. 

PFRMAN  ^"s  ls  a  "ar£e  Productive  area  lying  to  the  east 

„., of  the  Kongo  Free  State.     It  does  not  have  as 

EAST  AFRICA         .       ,     ,    °  .   -  n         .  . , 

abundant    rainfall,   and  would    seem   in   every 

way  to  be  better  adapted  to  general  agriculture,  since  the  land  is 

free  from  dense  forests  and  more  easily  cultivated.      As  yet  there 

has  been  but  little  done  to  develop  this  region. 

BRITISH  To  the  north  o\'  German  East   Africa  is   British 

EAST  AFRICA       EaS*    AtVica'   an    (Mlu:lll.v    fertile    :m<1    valuable 
region.     A  railroad  has  been  completed  through 


392  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

this  territory  from  Monbasa  on  the  coast  to  Port  Florence  on 
Victoria  Nyanza,  a  distance  of  about  600  miles.  This  railway 
connects  the  British  colony  of  Uganda  with  the  coast. 

Tj^nrPTir-TTucr'     ^he    Portuguese    possessions    lie    south    of    the 
POKlUuUEoE     T^  p    l      n,  n     ,-,  t-,     .      .  „  . 

Kongo    h  ree    State    and    German    .Last    Africa. 

They  are  the  remnants  of  territory  claimed  under 

explorations  made  a  little  before  Columbus  discovered  America. 

The  country  on  the  west  coast  has  never  yet  been  developed  in  the 

least,   except  in  the  vicinity  of  a   few  towns   which   have  fairly 

good  harbors,  but  the  east  coast  has  a  number  of  good  harbors 

which    furnish    the    outlet  for   the    trade    from    the  interior,  and 

this  section  has  been  opened  to  civilization  more  folly  than  that 

on  the  west. 

SOUTH  AFRICA. 

This  region  includes  the  country  from    the  Zambezi 

EXTENT 

River  to  the  South,  and  the  most  valuable  part  of  it 

belongs  to   Great   Britain.      On   the   west  is    German    Southwest 

Africa,  and  on  the  east  is  the  southern  portion  of  Portuguese  East 

Africa,  or  the  old  Mozambique  country.     The  British  possessions 

extend    from  the    Kongo   State   on  the    north    southward   to    the 

Cape,    and    include    Rhodesia,  Natal,  Transvaal    Colony,  Orange 

River    Colony,    Cape    Colony,    and   a    few    other    small    political 

divisions.       The   interior    is    too    dry    for    successful    agriculture, 

but    it   constitutes    an    excellent    grazing    country    and    sustains 

thousands    of    cattle,    sheep    and    goats.       South    of  the   Orange 

River    Colony    there    is    more    rainfall,    and    nearly    all    crops 

common  to    a  temperate    climate   are  raised.     Fruits    are  grown 

profusely,  and  as  they  ripen  during  our  winter  months  the  grapes 

iiud  a  ready  market  in  London  and  other  English  cities,  to  which 

they  tire   sent  in  refrigerator  ships.     Wool,    mohair,    hides    and 

leather  are  other  agricultural  exports. 


COMMERCE   AND    INDUSTRY  393 

This   is   one  of  the    richest  mineral    regions    in    the 

IVT  i  n  ppi  1  ^ 

world.  The  diamond  mines  in  Kimberly  supply 
ninety-eight  per  cent  of  all  the  diamonds  used,  and  the  gold  mines 
of  the  Transvaal,  near  Johannesburg,  are  the  richest  mines  in  the 


AN  OPEN   DIAMOND   MINK,  KIMBERLY 

world,  and  their  development  is  only  just  begun.  Coal  in  abun- 
dance is  also  found  in  this  region,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  mined 
to  any  extent. 

Cape  Town,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent, 
before  the  construction  of  the   Suv/.  Canal,  was   one   of 


CAPE-TO-OAIRO  RAILWAY 


COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY  395 

the  most  important  ports  of  call  in  the  world  and  now  receives 
several  thousand  vessels  every  year.  Johannesburg,  next  to 
Cairo,  is  the  largest  city  of  the  continent.  It  has  been  built  since 
the  opening  of  the  great  mines  in  the  Transvaal  and  is  in  every 
way  a  modern  city  of  some  over  100,000  inhabitants.  Pretoria 
was  the  former  capital  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  Durban,  Lourenco 
Marquez  and  Beira  are  important  seaports  on  the  eastern  coast  and 
each  has  railway  connection  with  the  interior.  Port  Elizabeth,  on 
the  south  coast,  is  the  most  important  seaport. 

Zanzibar,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  opposite  German 
East  Africa,  occupies  a  position  in  reference  to  this  region  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  Hongkong  in  reference  to  Asia.  It  is  a 
British  colony,  but  its  government  is  administered  by  a  sultan. 
The  great  island  of  Madagascar  belongs  to  the  French. 

Comparatively,  the  commerce  of  Africa  is  yet  small. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  by  reason 
of  its  wonderful  resources  and  possibilities  the  attention  of  the 
civilized  nations  has  been  turned  to  this  continent.  As  these  possi- 
bilities are  becoming  better  known,  the  commerce  is  increasing, 
and  the  development  in  the  near  future  will  undoubtedly  be  much 
more  rapid  than  it  has  been  in  any  equal  period  in  the  past.  The 
great  trunk  line,  known  as  the  Cape-to-Cairo  Railroad,  has  been 
projected,  and  about  1800  miles  of  the  southern  portion  and  1200 
miles  of  the  northern  portion  of  it  have  already  been  constructed. 
Both  in  the  South  and  in  the  North  branches  extend  from  this  line 
to  the  coast  towns,  or  into  fertile  agricultural  or  mineral  regions. 
An  immense  steel  bridge  has  been  completed  across  the  gorge 
below  Victoria  Falls  on  the  Zambezi.  This  bridge  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  feats  of  engineering  in  the  world.  It  conducts 
one  branch  of  this  railway  into  a  country  rich  in  both  agricultural 
and  mineral  resources. 

The  Cape-to-Cairo  telegraph  is  completed  as  far  north  as  Lake 


396  COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

Tanganyika,  and  south  beyond  Khartum.  All  important  cities  are 
also  connected  by  telegraphic  lines.  Most  of  the  trade  is  with  the 
European  countries,  though  the  United  States  has  exported  to 
South  Africa  considerable  quantities  of  railway  supplies,  hard- 
ware and  electrical  machinery.  Africa  has  a  vast  population, 
which  when  once  fully  acquainted  with  the  customs  and  usages  of 
civilization,  will  create  a  demand  for  manufactures  that  can  not  do 
otherwise  than  greatly  stimulate  the  industries  of  all  countries 
having  commercial  relations  with  the  continent. 

QUESTIONS. 

Which  is  the  larger,  Africa  or  North  America? 

How  do  the  climatic  conditions  in  Africa  compare  with  those  in  South 
America  ? 

Why  was  Africa  so  long  neglected  by  the  civilized  nations?  What 
nations  now  have  a  controlling  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the  continent? 

With  what  European  countries  do  the  States  of  Northern  Africa  en- 
gage in  trade?     What  commodities  are  exchanged? 

How  do  the  products  of  the  Kongo  Free  State  compare  with  those  of 
the  Amazon  Basin? 

In  what  portion  of  Africa  do  we  find  climatic  and  agricultural  condi- 
tions resembling  those  on  the  Great  Plains  in  the  United  States? 

What  section  of  the  continent  is  well  supplied  with  railroads?  What 
trunk  line  is  now  being  constructed?     How  far  is  it  completed? 

To  what  extent  is  the  United  States  interested  in  commerce  with  Afri- 
can countries? 


INDEX. 


Afghanistan 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  379 
Africa 

Gold  found  in,  114 

Surface,  385 

Climate,  385 

Political  divisions,  386 

Commerce  of,  395 
Agricultural  Implements 

Manufacture  of,  171 
Agriculture 

Relation  of  rainfall  to,  8 

of  Canada,  274 

of  Mexico,  283 

of  Colombia,  292 

of  Bolivia,  294 

of  Chile,  295 

of  Venezuela,  296 

of  Brazil,  299 

of  Argentina,  304 

of  the  West  Indies,  307 

of  the  United  Kingdom,  311 

of  the  German  Empire,  321 

of  France,  329 

of  Belgium,  335 

of  the  Netherlands,  337 

of  Denmark,  338 

of  Norway  and  Sweden,  339 

of  Austria-Hungary,  343 

of  Spain  and  Portugal,  347 

of  Italy,  348 

of  the  Russian  Empire,  357 

of  British  India,  364 

of  the  Chinese  Empire,  367 

of  Japan,  373 

of  Australia,  383 
Alaska 

Re-;ourcesand  commerce  of,  247-24S 

Trade  with,  248 
Alps 

Effect    of,    upon    the    climate    of 
Southern  Europe,  10 
Altitude 

Effect  of,  upon  climate,  8 


Aluminum 

Ores  of,  118 

Where  produced,  118 
Amazon 

Rainfall  along,  2 

Forests  of  the,  2 
Andes 

Perpetual  snow  on,  8 
Animals 

Use  of,  in  transportation,  23 
Anthracite  Coal 

Described,  130 
Appalachian  Highlands 

Described,  35 
Argentina 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  SOS- 
SOS 
Articles,  Small 

Importance  of,  172. 
Atlantic  Slope 

Described,  33 
Australia 

Important  gold-producing  country, 
114 

Described,  381 

Climate  of,  382 

Rainfall  in,  382 

Resources  of,  382 

Agriculture  of,  383 

Minerals  of,  383 

Cities  of,  383 

Commerce  of,  384 
Austria-Hungary 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  343- 
345 
Hanks 

Uses  of,  232 

Relations  of,  to  clearing  house  284 

Earnings  of,  235 
Baltimore 

An  important  railroad  center,  L86 

An  important  commercial  port.  'Jos 
Baluchistan 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  :'.7'.» 

397 


398 


INDEX 


Beef 

Production  of,  in  the  United  States, 
73 

Slaughtering  and  packing  of,  76 

Quantity  exported,  79 
Belgium 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  835- 
337 
Bituminous  Coal 

Described,  129 
Boards  of  Trade 

Described,  237-238 
Bolivia 

Leading  silver-producing  couutry, 
115 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  294 
Boots  and  Shoes 

Manufacture  of,  161-163 

Value  of,  in  the  United  States,  163 

Rubber  boots  and  shoes,  173 
Boston 

An  important  railroad  center,  184 

Peculiarity  of  site,  203 

Described,  207-208 
Brazil 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  298- 
303 
Brick 

Manufacture  of,  142 
Bridges 

Effect    of    construction    of,    upon 
railroads,  181 
British  East  Africa,  391 
British  Empire 

Extent  of,  311 
Buffalo 

An  important  railroad  center,  185 

An  important  lake  port,  212 
Building  Stone 

Varieties  of,  139 
Bulgaria 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  353 
Bureau  of  Forestry 

Duties  of,  107 
Buttons 

Manufacture  of,  174 
By-Products 

Manufacture  of,  176 
Calicoes 

Printing  of,  154 
California 

Production  of  mercury  in,  118 


Canada 

Temperature  of  the  interior  of,  9 

Described,  273 

Climate  of,  274 

Agriculture  of,  274 

Lumber  in,  275 

Mineral  resources  of,  275 

Fisheries  of,  277 

Furs  in,  277 

Manufactures  of,  278 

Transportation  in,  278 

Cities  of,  279 

Commerce  of,  281 
Canals 

Number  and  location  of,  29 

Map  of,  188 

Location  of,  in  the  United  States, 
191 

Connecting    Lake    Erie    with    the 
Ohio  River,  193 
Cannel  Coal 

Described,  129 
Cape-to-Caiko  Railway 

Map  of,  394 

Described,  395 
Caravans 

Used  for  transportation,  24 

Use  of,  in  Africa,  386 
Cattle 

Breeds  suitable  for  dairying,  72 

Breeds  suitable  for  beef,  73 

Marketing  of,  75 

Number  of,  used  by  packing  houses, 
79 

Number  exported,  79" 
Cement 

Described,  143 
Central  America 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  285-286 
Central  Plain 

Described,  37 
Cereals 

Grown  in  the  United  States,  69 
Chicago 

Shipping  point  for  wheat,  53 

Meat  packing  in,  75-76 

A  lumber  market,  103 

Iron  mills  in,  121 

Manufacture    of    agricultural    im- 
plements in,  171 

Manufacture    of    electrical    appli- 
ances in,  172 


INDEX 


399 


Chicago  —  continued 

An  important  railroad  center,  185 

Location  and  extent  of,  221 

Plan  of,  223-227 

Transportation  in,  227 

Manufactures  in,  227 

Trade  of,  228 
Chile 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  295 
Chinese  Empire 

Described,  367 

Agriculture  of,  367 

Mineral  resources  of,  368 

Manufactures  of,  369 

Transportation  in,  369 

Cities  of,  370 

People  of,  371 
Cincinnati 

An  important  railroad  center,  185 

Commercial  importance  of,  213 
Cities 

Causes  for  location  of,  199-201 

Plan  of,  201-207 

Transportation  in,  205 
Clay 

Described,  141 
Clearing  House 

Described,  233-234 
Cleveland 

An  important  lake  port,  212 
Climate 

Important  features  of,  2 

Modifying  influences  of,  5 
Coal 

Where  found,  127 

Formation  of,  127 

Varieties  of,  129 

Coal  measures,  130 

Mining  of,  131 

Transportation  of,  131 

Uses  of,  132 

Output  and  production  of,  133 

Movement  of,  24:'. 
Cod 

How  caught,  90 

Importance!  of,  90 
Coffee 

Exported  from  Porto  Rico,  249 

Produced  in  .Mexico.  283 

Produced  in  Colombia,  292 

Produced  in  Bolivia,  294 

Produced  in  Venezuela,  296 


Coffee  —  continued 

Culture  of,  described,  298 

Importance  of,  in  Brazil,  303 
Coke 

Described,  132 
Colombia 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  292 
Colorado  Plateau 

Described,  39 
Columbian  Plateau 

Described,  39 
Commerce 

Beginnings  of,  17 

Reasons  for  growth  of,  18 

Domestic,  described,  244-245 

Value  of,  with  island  possessions, 
256 

Foreign  and   domestic,  compared, 
257 

Principles  governing,  258 

(Also  see  United  States,  Commerce 
of) 
Commodities 

Unequal  distribution  of,  23 

Movement  of,  242 
Communication 

Means  of,  in  the  United  States,  197 
Copper 

Ancient  use  of,  115 

Mines,  116 

Production  of,  in  the  United  States, 
116 
Corn 

History  of,  61 

Plant  described,  61 

Corn  belt,  63 

Harvesting,  65 

Uses  of,  65 

Production  of,  in  the  United  States, 
67 

Production  of,  in  Mexico,  284 

Production  of,  in  Argentina,  304 

Production  of,  in  Italy,  348 
Corporations 

Described,  2:'..~> 
Cotton 

History  of,  81 

Plant  described,  82 

Cotton  belt,  84 

( 'nit  i  vat  ion  of  cotton  plant,  84 

Production  of,  in  the  United  States, 
85-87 


400 


INDEX 


Cotton  —  continued 
Marketing  of,  87 
Value  of,  87 
Manufacture    of,    in    the    United 

States,  154 
Movement  of,  in  the  United  States, 

242 
Manufacture    of,    in     the    United 

Kingdom,  313 
Manufacture  of,  in  France,  331 
Manufacture  of,  in  Russia,  358 
Manufacture  of,  in  China,  369 
Manufacture  of,  in  Japan,  375 
Cotton  Gin 

Invention  of,  82 
Cuba 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  307- 
310 
Dairying 

Suitable  conditions  for,  71 
Extent  of,  in  the  United   States, 
72 
Death  Valley 

Location  of,  40 
Denmark 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  338 
Detroit 

An  important  lake  port,  212 
Discoveries 

Effect  of,  upon  commerce,  18 
Duluth 

Cause  of  development  of,  200 
Commercial  importance  of,  211 
Eades,  James  B. 

Builder     of     Mississippi     jetties, 
209 
East  Indies 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  380 
Ecuador 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  293 
Egypt 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  387 
Electrical  Appliances 
Manufacture  of,  172 
Electric  Railways 

Uses  of,  28 
Elgin,  III. 

Watch  factory,  in,  175 
Erie  Canal 

Described,  191 

Effect    of    construction    of,    upon 
Boston,  207 


Exports 

Value  of,  from  the  United  States, 

258-259 
Proportion  of,  to  other  countries, 

263 
Exports  to  different  countries,  264- 
266 
Ferries 

Use  of,  by  railroads,  183 
Location  of,  183 
Fisheries 

Fishing  grounds,  89 
The  Atlantic  Division,  89 
The  Pacific  Division,  93 
The  Inland  Division,  93 
Government  control  of,  94 
of  Canada,  277 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  312 
of  France,  330 
Flour  (see  Wheat) 
Forests 

Regions,  97 
Use  of,  98 
Value  of,  106 
Retention  of  soil  by,  107 
Preservation  of,  107 
of  the  Philippines,  253 
of  Canada,  275 
of  Brazil,  298 

of  the  German  Empire,  323 
of  Siberia,  359 
France 

Described,  329 
Agriculture  of,  329 
Fisheries  of,  330 
Mineral  resources  of,  330 
Manufactures  of,  330 
Transportation  in,  331 
Cities  of,  331 
Commerce  of,  333 
Colonial  possessions  of,  333 
French  Kongo,  391 
French  Possessions 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  379 
Furs 

Found  in  the  United  States,  159 
German  East  Africa,  391 
German  Empire 

Important  coal-producing  country, 

133 
Described,  321 
Agriculture  of,  321 


INDEX 


401 


German  Empire  —  continued 

Mineral  resources  of,  323 

Manufactures  of,  323 

Transportation  in,  325 

Cities  of,  325 

Commerce  of,  327 
Gloucester 

Important  fishing  port,  01 
Gloves  and  Mittens 

Manufacture  of,  173 
Gold 

Taken  from  the   Rocky   Mountain 
Region,  41 

Discovered  in  California,  iV 

Mining  of,  111 

Production  of,  114 

Use  of,  114 

Value  of,  114 
Government,  National 

Aids  navigation,  31 
Grain 

Movement  of,  242 
Grand  Rapids 

Large    furniture-manufacturing 
center,  103 
Granite 

Described,  141 
Graphite 

Described,  144 
Great  Basin 

Described,  40 
Great  Central  Plain 

Rainfall  in,  7 

Described,  37 
Great  Lakes 

Commercial  routes  on,  189 
Great  Plains 

Described,  38 
Great  Salt  Lake 

Location  of,  40 
Greece 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  353 
Guam 

A  possession  of  the  United  Stales. 
256 
Guiana 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  297 
Haddock 

1  (escribed,  91 
Halibut 

Described,  92 


Hamburg 

Connection  with  the  Atlantic  ports 
of  the  United  States,  261 

HARB0R8 

Means  of  locating  cities,  199 
Hawaii 

Described,  250 

Commercial  importance  of,  251 

1 1  KMT 

.Manufacture   of    in   the   United 
States,  158 
Herring 

How  caught,  91 
Uses  of,  92 
Himalayas 

Perpetual  snow  on,  8 
Hogs 

Production  of,  in  the  United  States, 

74 
Marketing  of,  75 

Number    of,     used    by    packing 
houses,  79 
Hongkong 

Important  commercial  port,  372 
Honolulu 

An  important   commercial  center, 
251 
Hudson  Bay  Company 

Origin  and  growth  of,  18 
Ice 

Work  of,  in  formation  of  soil,  14 
Imports 

Character  of,  to  the  United  States, 

259-260 
Proportion   of,   from   other  coun- 
tries, 2G3 
India 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  363- 

366 
Agriculture  of,  364 
Manufactures  of,  364 
Transportation  in,  365 
Cities  of,  366 
Indians 

Early  trade  among,  17 
Industries 

Extent    of    local,    in    the    United 
States,  241 
Ikon 

Importance  of,  118 
Ore,  119 


402 


INDKX 


Iron  —  continued 

Transportation  of,  121 

Mills,  location  of,  121 

Uses  of,  122 

Smelting  of,  122 

Movement  of,  244 
Italy 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  348- 
351 
Japan 

Described,  373 

Agriculture  of.  373 

Mineral  resources  of,  374 

Manufactures  of,  375 

Transportation  in,  376 

Cities  of,  376 

Commerce  of,  376 

People  of,  377 
Joplin 

Important  zinc  mines  of,  117 
Jute 

Manufacture    of    in    the    United 
States,  158 
Kansas  City 

Commercial  importance  of,  213 
Kaiser  Whilhelm  Canal,  29 
Kongo  Free  State 

Described,  390-391 
Kongo  River 

Rainfall  in  the  valley  of,  2 
Korea 

Described,  378 
Labor 

Effect  of  division   of,  upon  com- 
merce, 18 
Lake  Ports,  211 
Land 

Area  of,  in  the  world,  1 

Proportion  of,  suitable  for  culti- 
vation, 1 
Laurentian  Highlands,  35 
Lead 

Where  found,  117 

Uses  of,  117 
Leather 

Described,  159 

Tanning  of,  159 

Uses  of,  160 

"Value    of,   in   the  United    States, 
161 
Lignite 

Described,  129 


Limestone 

Described,  131 
Linen 

Manufacture    of,    in    the    United 
States,  158 
Liverpool 

Important  cotton  market,  85 

Connection  with  Atlantic  ports  of 
the  United  States,  261 

Described,  317 
Live  Stock 

Grown  in  the  United  States,  71-73 

Animals  used  by  packiug  houses. 
79 

Movement  of,  243 
London 

Described,  315 
Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition 

Held  in  St.  Louis,  213 
Lumber 

Regions,  97-98 

Kinds  of,  99 

Lumbering,  101 

Suitable  trees  for,  101 

Transportation  of,  102 

Sawmills,  102 

Marketing  of,  103 

Uses  of,  105 

Output,  105 

Production  of,  in  Alaska,  247 

Production  of,  in  Canada,  275 

Production  of,  in  the  German  Em- 
pire, 323 

Production    of,    in    Norway    and 
Sweden,  340 
Lynn,  Mass. 

Center  of  shoe  industry,  162 
Mackerel 

How  caught,  91 

Uses  of,  92 
Manchester 

Important  cotton  market,  85 

A  seaport,  317 
Manufactures 

Importance  of,  145 

Location  of  manufacturing  indus- 
tries, 145 

Transportation  of,  147 

Manufacturing  centers,  148 

Movement  of,  242 

Manufacturing    portions    of    New 
York,  218 


INDEX 


403 


Manufactures  —  continued 

of  New  York,  220 

Manufacturing  (enters  of  Chicago, 
225 

of  Chicago.  227 

of  Canada,  278 

of  Brazil,  302 

of  Argentina,  304 

of  Cuba,  309 

of  the  United  Kingdom,  313 

of  Germany,  323 

of  France,  330 

of  Belgium,  336 

of  the  Netherlands,  337 

of  Norway  and  Sweden,  340 

of  Austria-Hungary,  344 

of  Switzerland,  345 

of  Italy,  349 

of  Turkey,  355 

of  Russia,  358 

of  India,  364 

of  China,  369 

of  Japan, '375 
Marble 

Described,  139 
Meat 

Slaughtering  and   packing  of,  de- 
scribed, 76 

Value  of,  77 
Menhaden 

Described,  92 
Merchant  Marine 

Condition  of,  in  the  United  States, 
261 
Mercury 

Described,  118 
Metals 

Described,  113 
Mexico 

Important  silver  country,  115 

Described,  283 

Climate  of,  283 

Resources  of,  283 

Inhabitants  of,  284 

Commerce  of,  284 

Transportation  in,  285 
Military  Stations 

Cause   of    tbe    location    of    cities, 
200 
Milling  (see  Wheat) 
Milwaukee 

An  important  lake  port,  211 


Minerals 

Where  found,  109 

Classification  of,  112 
Mines 

Location  of,  109 
Mining 

Described,  109 

Methods  of,  109 

Mining  towns,  111 

Means  of  locating  cities,  200 
Minneapolis 

An  important  milliug  center,  59 

A  lumber  market,  103 
Mittens  (see  Gloves  and  Mittens) 
Money 

Necessity  for,  231 

Materials  used  as,  231 

Money  of  the  United  States,  232 
Montenegro 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  354 
Mountains 

EflVct  of,  on  climate,  9 
Natural  Gas 

Where  found,  137 

Importance  of,  138 
Needles 

Manufacture  of,  174 
Netherlands 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  337- 
338 
Newfoundland 

Commerce  of,  281 
New  Orleans 

An  important  railroad  center,  187 

Described,  209 
New  York 

Location  and  extent  of,  215 

Plan  of,  215 

Transportation  in,  219 

Manufactures  of,  220 

Trade  of,  221 
Norway  and  Sweden 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  339-341 
Ocean  Routes 

Located,  195 
Ores 

Described,  113 

Movement  of,  244 
Pacific  Slope 

Described,  41 
Panama 

Described,  21)0-291 


404 


INDEX 


Panama  Canal 

Construction  of,  30 

Map  of,  291 
Paper 

Manufacture  <>f,  165 

Quantity  used  in  printing,  167 
Paraguay 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  306 
Paris 

Described,  331 
Pencils 

Manufacture  of,  175 
Pens 

Manufacture  of,  175 
Persia 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  380 
Peru 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  293 
Petroleum 

Described,  133 

Where  found,  133 

History  of,  134 

Refining  of,  134 

Products  of,  135 

Uses  of,  136 

Transportation  of,  136 

Movement  of,  243 
Philadelphia 

Located  on  the  fall  line,  34 

An  important  railroad  center,  185 

Described,  209 
Philippine  Islands 

Described,  251 

Resources  of,  253 

Cities  of,  255 

Government  of,  255 

Steamboat   connections    with    the 
United  States,  261 
Pins 

Manufacture  of,  174 
Pittsburg 

Iron  mills  in,  121 

An  important  railroad  center,  185 

Commercial  importance  of,  241 
Plants 

Adaptation  of  to  climate  and  soil, 
15 

Regions  of,  16 
Polar  Regions 

Climate  of,  3 

Inhabitants  of.  3 


Porto  Rico 

Described,  248 

Products  of,  249 

Trade  with,  249 

Government  of,  250 
Portugal 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  347 
Portuguese  Possessions,  392 
Printing 

Relatiou  of   to   commerce  and   in- 
dustry, 165 

Development  of  the  printing  press, 
167 

Type-setting,  168 

Location  of  the  printing  and  pub- 
lishing business,  169 
Railroad  Centers 

Cause  of  locating  cities,  201 
Railroads 

Origin  of,  26 

Construction    of,    in    the     United 
States,  27 

Transportation  by,  economical,  28 

Map    of,    in    the    United    States, 
178 

Groups  of,  in  the  United   States, 
184-187 

Statistics  of,  187 
Rainfall 

Causes  of,  5 

Map  of,  6 

Effect  of,  upon  vegetation,  7 

Map  of,  in  the  United  States,  44 
Red  River  of  the  North 

Production  of  wheat  in  the  basin 
of,  52 
Remittances 

Methods  of  making,  239 
Resin 

Uses  of,  106 
Rice 

Where  grown  in  the  United  States, 
15 

Production  of,  in  the  Philippines, 
253 

Production  of,  in  Brazil,  299 

Production  of,  in  Italy,  348 

Production  of,  in  China,  368 

Production  of,  in  Japan,  373 

Production  of,  in  Siam,  379 
River  Ports,  212 


INDEX 


405 


Rivers 

Used  as  commercial  routes,  29 

Important  navigable,  of  the  United 
States,  187 
Roads 

Origin  and  construction  of,  25 

Condition  of,  in  the  United  States, 
179 
Rocky  Mountain  Plateau 

Described,  39 

Climate  of,  40 
Rocky  Mountains 

Effect  of,  upon  winds,  9 

ROUMANIA 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  353 
Rubber 

Manufacture   of  boots   and  shoes 
from,  173 
Russia 

Navigable  rivers  in,  29 

Petroleum  fouud  in,  137 

Described,  357 

In  Europe,  357 

Mineral  resources  of,  358 

Manufactures  of,  358 

In  Asia,  359 

Transportation  in,  359 

Cities  of,  361 

Commerce  of,  362 
St.  Lawrence  River 

Canals  on,  192-193 
St.  Louis 

Manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  in, 
163 

An  important  railroad  center,  L86- 
187 

Commercial  importance  of,  212 
St.  Paul 

An  important  railroad  center,  186 

Cause  of  location  of,  201 

Commercial  importance  of,  213 
Salmon 

Atlantic  fisheries  of,  92 

Pacific  fisheries  of,  93 

Output  and  value  of,  93 

Canning  of,  in  Alaska,  248 
Salt 

Described,  143 
Sand 

Described,  143 
San  Domingo,  310 


Sandstone 

Described,  141 
San  Francisco 

An  Important  railroad  center,  1m; 

An  important  seaport,  210 

Steamship  connections  of,  261 
Sault  Stb  Marie  Canal 

Described,  192 

Map  of,  192 
Sawmills 

Described,  102 
Sea 

The  highway  of  nations,  30 
Skaimrts 

Cause  of  location  of  cities,  207 
Seattle 

An    important   railroad   center, 
186 

An   important  commercial  center, 
211 

Connection  with  Pacific  ports,  201 
Semi-Arid  Region 

Location  of,  8 
Servia 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  354 
Shad 

How  caught,  92 
Sheep 

Production  of,  in  the  United  Statr>, 
74 

Number    of,    used    by    packing 
houses,  7'.i 
Shoes  (see  Boots  and  Shoes) 

SlAM 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  379 
Siberia 

Climate  and  surface  of,  3 

Described,  359 
Silk 

Manufacture    of,    in     the     United 
States,  157 

Manufacture  of,  in  France,  330 

Production  of,  in  Italy,  349 

Raised  in  China,  368 

Manufacture  of,  in  China,  369 

Manufacture  of,  in  Japan,  375 
Silver 

Found    in    the    Rocky    Mountain 
regiou,  41 

Ores  of,  114 

Uses  of,  115 


406 


INDEX 


Slate 

Described,  141 
Soil 

Formation  of,  11 
Kinds  of,  12 
Fertility  of,  13 

Necessity  for  rotation  of  crops,  13 
South  America 

Position  and  surface  of,  287 
Climate,  288 
People  of,  289 
Government  of,  289 
Spain 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  347 
Steamboat 

Invention  of,  30 
Development  of,  31 
Steel 

Described,  123 
Bessemer  steel,  123 
Production  of,  125 
Stock  Exchange 

Described,  237-238 
Straits  Settlements,  The 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  366 
Suez  Canal 

Described,  30 

Compared  with  the  Sault  Ste  Marie 

Canal,  192 
Map  of,  387 
Sugar 

Importance  of,  in  Hawaii,  250 
Produced  in  Mexico,  283 
Produced  in  Venezuela,  296 
Produced  in  Guiana,  298 
Produced  in  Brazil,  299 
Produced  in  the  West  Indies,  307 
Produced  in  Egypt,  387 
Sugar-Beet 

Grown  in  Germany,  321 
Grown  in  France,  329 
Sweden  (see  Norway  and  Sweden) 
Switzerland 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  345 
Tanning 

Described,  159-160 
Tar 

How  obtained,  106 
Uses  of,  106 
Telegraph 

Extent  of,  in   the  United   States, 
196 


Temperate  Regions 

Climate  of,  4 
Textiles 

Manufacture  of,  151 
Various  kinds  of,  154-158 
Time  Pieces 

Manufacture  of,  175 
Value  of,  176 
Tobacco 

Grown  in  Porto  Rico,  249 
Importance  of,  in  the  Philippine 

Islands,  253 
Proportion  of,  raised  in  the  United 

States,  269 
Importance  of,  in  Mexico,  284 
An  important  crop  in  Cuba,  307 
An  important  crop  in  Turkey,  355 
Trade  (see  Commerce) 
Trans-Caspia,  359 
Trans-Caucasia,  359 
Transportation 
by  animals,  23 
by  caravans,  24 
by  railroads,  27 
by  electric  railways,  28 
by  water,  29-32 
Facilities  for,  in  the  United  States, 

242 
Bulk  of,  in  foreign  ships,  260-261 
in  Canada,  278 
in  Mexico,  285 
in  Colombia,  292 
in  Ecuador,  293 
in  Peru,  294 
in  Bolivia,  295 
in  Chile,  296 
in  Venezuela,  297 
in  Brazil,  302 
in  Argentina,  304 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  317 
in  Germany,  325 
in  France,  331 
in  Belgium,  337 
in  the  Netherlands,  338 
in  Austria-Hungary,  344 
in  Italy,  349 
in  Russia,  359 
in  British  India,  365 
in  the  Chinese  Empire,  369 
in  Japan,  376 
in  Australia,  384 
in  Northern  Africa,  386 


INDEX 


407 


Transportation  —  continued 

in  the  Kongo  Free  State,  391 

in  South  Africa,  395 

(See  also   Canals,  Rivers,   Roads, 
and  Waterways) 
Trans-Siberian  Railway 

Described,  360 

Map  of ,  360 
Tropical  Regions 

Climate  of,  2 

Inhabitants  of,  2 
Tundra 

Vegetation  of,  3 

Inhabitants  of,  3 

Animals  of,  3 
Tunnels 

Effect    of    construction    of,    upon 
railroads,  181 

Location  of  important  tunnels, 
181 
Turkey 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  355 
Turpentine 

How  procured,  106 

Uses  of,  106 
Tuituila 

A  possession  of  the  United  States, 
256 
Type-setting 

Progress  in,  168 
United  Kingdom 

Important  coal  producing  country, 
133 

Described,  311 

Fisheries  of,  312 

Mineral  resources  of,  312 

Manufactures  of,  313 

Cities  of,  315 

Transportation  in,  317 

Commerce  of,  317 
United  States 

Temperature  of  the  interior  of,  9 

Position  and  extent  of,  33 

Physical  features  of,  33 

Climate  of,  43 

Rainfall  of,  45 

Production  of  wheat  in,  51-59 

Production  of  corn  in,  67 

Important  gold-producing  country, 
114 

Leading  silver-producing  country, 
114 


United  States  —  continued 

Important  coal-producing  country, 
133 

Production  of  petroleum  in,  137 

The   largest  manufacturing   coun- 
try of  the  world,  149 

Exteut  of  local  industries  in,  241 

Individuality  of  the  inhabitants  of, 
241 

Domestic  commerce  of,  244-245 

Exports  of,  258-266 

Imports  of,  259-260 

Leading  countries  with  which  trade 
is  carried  on,  260 

Commercial  growth  of,  267-271 

Statistical  table,  272 
United  States,  Commerce  of 

with  Canada,  281 

with  Newfoundland,  281 

with  Mexico,  285 

with  Central  America,  286 

with  Colombia,  292 

with  Ecuador,  293 

with  Peru,  294 

with  Chile,  296 

with  Venezuela,  297 

with  Guiana,  298 

with  Brazil,  303 

with  Argentina,  305 

with  Uruguay,  306 

with  the  United  Kingdom,  320 

with  the  German  Empire,  327 

with  France,  334 

with  Belgium,  337 

with  the  Netherlands,  338 

with  Norway  ami  Sweden,  340 

with  Austria-Huugary,  345 

with  n.aly,  351 

with  Greece,  353 

with  Russia,  362 

with  Chinese  Empire,  371 

with  Japan,  379 

with  Australia,  386 

with  Africa,  395 
United  States  Mail 

As  a  means  of  communication,  196 
Uruguay 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  305 
Venezuela 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  296 
Wai.iiiam,   Mass. 

Watch  factory  in,  175 


408 


INDEX 


Watches 

Manufacture    of,    in    the    United 
States,  175 
Water  Power 

Cause  of  locating  cities,  200 
Waterways 

Inland,  in  the  United  States,  187 

Rivers  used  as,  187 

Lakes  used  as,  189 

Canals  used  as,  191 
Welland  Canal 

Mentioned,  29 

Described,  192 
West  Indies 

Resources  and  commerce  of,  307- 
310 
Wheat 

Wheat  plant  described,  47 

Varieties  of,  49 

Wheat  countries,  49 

Wheat  belt  of  the  United  States,  51 

Planting  and  harvesting  of,  52-53 

Transportation  of,  55 

Manufacture  of,  into  flour,  55 


Wheat  —  continued 
Statistics  of,  59 
Production  of,  in  France,  329 
Production  of,  in  Austria-Hungary. 

343 
Production  of,  in  Italy,  348 
Production  of,  In  Roumania,  353 
Production  of,  in  Russia,  357 
Production  of,  in  India,  364 
Production  of,  in  Egypt,  387 

Winds 

Effect  of,  upon  rainfall,  5-7 

Wine 

Production  of,  in  France,  330 
Production  of,  in  Portugal,  348 

Wool 

Production  of,  75 

Woolens 

Manufacture  of,  155-156 

Zanzibar,  395 

Zinc 

Mines,  117 

production  of,  in  the  United  States, 
117 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


BBS.  an° 

r&t:'D  ld-url 


Form  L-9-35m-8,'28 


HF 
G e o gr aphy  of  _corn: 


L  006  009  834  0 


H  F 


N  BRANCH, 

Y  OF  CALIFORNIA 
LSRARY, 

VGELES,  CALIF. 


